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作者简介:

刘松楠,女,1994年生。博士,工程师,研究方向为大地构造、沉积储层。E-mail: liusongnan.syky@sinopec.com。

通讯作者:

王瑜,男,1966年生。博士,二级教授,研究方向为构造年代学、大地构造。E-mail: wangy@cugb.edu.cn。

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目录contents

    摘要

    板块构造理论将地质演化与板块聚散概括为大陆裂谷—大洋形成—大洋衰亡(洋壳俯冲)—碰撞造山几个阶段,据此全球造山系主要分为增生型和碰撞型两类。但是很多情况下上述过程并不是连续且完整的,在大陆裂谷过程中经历构造反转即形成陆内造山。通过对松潘-甘孜构造带中晚二叠世至三叠纪末期的研究,发现其中晚二叠世发生初始裂陷作用,发育了三道桥组角砾状灰岩、砾岩等粗碎屑沉积,上覆大石包组玄武岩,与二叠纪攀西裂谷是相同构造背景下的产物;中—晚三叠世则为裂后沉降期,接受了来自多个方向物源的碎屑充填形成厚层砂岩、粉砂岩;诺利期—瑞替期开始发生应力场的反转,三叠系盖层发生强烈的褶皱变形,并伴有大规模中—酸性岩浆侵入。该地质演化过程中未出现新生洋壳和俯冲带,裂谷的衰亡和应力场反转的动力学机制可能受控于印支期造山的远程响应,同时深部岩浆对流的停止不足以提供持续伸展的动力。这一演化模式的提出有助于深入了解板块构造,助力大陆动力学机制研究。

    Abstract

    The geological evolution of tectonic plates can be divided into several stages according to the theory of plate tectonics: continental rifting, incipient ocean formation, oceanic crust subduction (ocean death), and collisional orogeny. Global orogenic events mainly consist of accretionary and collisional types. However, in many cases, these processes are often not continuous or complete. Intracontinental orogens can arise when tectonic inversion occurs during continental rifting. A case study of the Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt, spanning the Middle Permian to the Late Triassic, exemplifies this phenomenon. Initial rifting occurred in the Late Permian, characterized by coarse clastic deposits in the Sandaoqiao Formation, including brecciated limestone and conglomerate. These deposits are overlain by Dashibao basalt, indicating a similar tectonic setting to the Permian Panxi Rift. The Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt evolved to a post-rift stage during the Middle to late Triassic and received debris from multiple sources to form thick sandstone and siltstone. The stress field began to reverse in the Norian-Rhaetian stage, leading to intense folding and deformation of the Triassic sedimentary layers, accompanied by large-scale felsic magma intrusion. No oceanic crust or subduction zone formed during the evolution from continental rifting to orogeny. The cessation of rifting dynamics and the reversal of the stress field may be controlled by two factors: remote compression from the Indosinian orogeny and the suspension of deep magmatic convection. This proposed evolutionary model is helpful to a deeper understanding of plate tectonics and the mechanisms driving continental dynamics.

  • 大地构造是发展地球科学最前沿的、纲领性的前提。从20世纪初的槽台学说,发展到大陆漂移-海底扩张,再到板块构造理论的提出,体现了研究思路的重大转变。从强调岩石圈尺度内的垂向运动,逐渐认识到深部地幔的动力作用和岩石圈的水平运动,进而提出了大板块、小板块及微板块等不同规模的板块划分。经典的板块构造理论提出自20世纪60年代,并总结了板块聚散的演化过程,即经历了大陆裂谷—大洋形成—大洋衰亡(洋壳俯冲)—碰撞造山过程,同时也经历了从伸展到挤压的应力场转换(Wilson,1965; Mckenzie et al.,1969)。陆内裂谷是大陆岩石圈伸展和洋壳形成的初始阶段和关键过程,在持续伸展作用下岩石圈减薄,并进一步发展为具有新生洋壳和海底扩张的成熟洋盆,密度大的镁铁质洋壳向下俯冲并带动另一侧陆壳移动,在汇聚板块边缘形成汇聚环境下的增生造山或碰撞造山。陆陆碰撞是造山隆升、岩石圈增厚的重要机制,往往伴随着大量中—酸性岩浆侵入和高压变质作用的发生,以喜马拉雅造山带最为典型(Wang Qiang et al.,2016; Shi Danian et al.,2020; Wu Chenguang et al.,2022; 王佳敏等,2022)。增生造山包含了挤压、伸展、走滑不同性质应力场在时空上的多重叠加,以微板块侧向拼贴为特征,通常具有多重俯冲极性,中亚造山带是其典型代表(肖文交等,2022)。但当构造应力场反转发生在陆内裂谷阶段时,挤压造山就作用直接叠加在裂谷之上,未经历大洋的打开和闭合阶段即形成了陆内造山带,其特点在于远离板块边缘、先存构造带的继承与活化、构造极性多样化、岩浆岩呈面状展布等(张长厚和宋鸿林,19961997Wang Yu,2025)。西班牙比利牛斯构造带、澳大利亚中部的Alice Spring造山带等都是裂谷—陆内造山的典型(Goleby et al.,1989; Tugend et al.,20142015; Angiolini et al.,2015)。中国华南板块是研究陆内造山较为系统的区域,目前普遍达成共识,认为其从早古生代开始进入陆内演化阶段(褚杨等,2015颜丹平等,2018)。虽然陆内或板内造山的概念在30年前就已经提出(张长厚和宋鸿霖,19961997Neil and Houseman,1999),但是受板块构造的理论模型的深远影响,国内学者依旧倾向于勾勒出伸展—俯冲—碰撞的完整演化过程。在我国不断发现新的“俯冲带”,大部分“俯冲带”证据不足有待进一步研究。实际上威尔逊旋回的各阶段并不总是连续且完整发生的,触发应力场反转的原因具有多样性,发生的时间也可以在构造演化的任何阶段。基于对西班牙白垩纪—古近纪的比利牛斯、中国中—新生代的松潘-甘孜、江南-雪峰、秦岭、天山、贺兰山、燕山-阴山等构造带的调查和研究,可知大陆裂谷之上发育造山带的构造反转演化模式可能并不少见(褚杨等,2015颜丹平等,2018; Liu Songnan et al.,20212023; Li Wei et al.,2022; Wang Fujun et al.,2022; Vasey et al.,2024)。这类陆内造山带的物质组成、构造样式、岩浆活动以及动力学机制十分复杂,对认识板块构造和大陆动力学研究具有重要意义。

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带位于青藏高原东缘,因其作为古特提斯构造域的重要组成部分以及广泛出露的巨厚三叠系“浊积岩”被国内外学者广泛关注,在过去的几十年间取得了巨大进展,尤其体现在对三叠系沉积物源、印支期岩浆岩形成机制以及中—新生代挤压造山等方面(图1; Şengör,198119841987; 黄汲清和陈炳蔚,1987; Nie Shangyou et al.,1994;张以弗等1997; Roger et al.,2004; 张雪亭等,2005; Weislogel et al.,200620082010; Enkelmann et al.,2007; Ding Lin et al.,2013; Dai Yanpei et al.,2017; 夏磊等,2017Jian Xing et al.,2019; Fei Guangchun et al.,2020; Xu Zhiqin et al.,2020; 许志琴等,2020)。然而在晚古生代—早中生带的演化模型、基底属性等方面依然存在诸多争议(图1;王小春,19992000任纪舜等,19992004Yin An et al.,2000; Chang,2000潘桂棠等,2001b李秋生等,2003; Meng Qingren et al.,2005)。本文聚焦中晚二叠世至晚三叠世之间的地质事件,通过野外露头尺度的沉积、构造解析和显微镜下岩相学分析,结合前人发表的同位素地球化学与年代学数据,综合考虑沉积学、岩浆演化动力机制、构造变形分期等方面,提出一种从大陆裂谷到陆内造山的演化模型,为深入理解板块构造理论,探讨大陆动力学机制提供参考依据。

  • 图1 不同观点下的松潘-甘孜构造带地质属性及演化模式图

  • Fig.1 Geological properties and evolution models of the Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt from different viewpoints

  • (a)—残余洋盆模型(引自Wu Chen et al.,2016);(b)—古特提斯洋俯冲回撤,在扬子板块边缘形成局部拉张背景下的弧后盆地(引自Zhu Yudi et al.,2020);(c)—扬子板块向周边地体之下俯冲,形成周缘前陆盆地(引自Pan Guitang et al.,2001a);(d)—扬子板块顺时针旋转与华北板块碰撞,在西侧形成侧陆盆地(引自王二七,2004);(e)—弧前盆地模型(改自杨宗让,2002

  • (a) —residual ocean basin model (cited from Wu Chen et al., 2016) ; (b) —the subduction and rollback of the Paleo-Tethys formed a extensional back-arc basin at the margin of the Yangtze plate (after Zhu Yudi et al., 2020) ; (c) —a peripheral foreland basin formed by the subduction of the Yangtze plate (after Pan Guitang et al., 2001a) ; (d) —the clockwise rotation of the Yangtze Plate collides with the North China Plate, forming a lateral continental basin on the west side (after Wang Erchei, 2004) ; (e) —fore-arc basin (modified from Yang Zongrang, 2002)

  • 1 地质背景

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带位于古特提斯构造域东部,青藏高原东北缘,四周被众多微陆块和缝合带包围,是晚古生代裂谷作用与中—新生代陆内造山机制下经历多期构造活动形成的复合构造带,与Pangea超大陆的形成和裂解及青藏高原隆升有着密不可分的关联,是破解东特提斯构造域演化及中国大地构造格局的重要突破口(Weislogel et al.,200620082010Enkelmann et al.,2007; Ding Lin et al.,2013)。松潘-甘孜构造带向西与巴颜喀拉地体相连,构成东西绵延约2300 km的三叠系“浊积岩”盆地,南北向在东侧最宽达500 km,向西变窄仅50 km宽,呈向东打开的喇叭口形状。西侧以金沙江-甘孜-理塘缝合带为界与羌塘板块、义敦地块相邻;北侧以康西瓦-阿尼玛卿-勉略构造带为界与东昆仑-西秦岭造山带相邻;东侧以龙门山褶皱逆冲带为界与四川盆地相邻(图2)。

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带是在三叠纪盆地基础上,经历了中—新生代多期构造运动形成的“叠合型”陆内造山带,不同于一般造山带的线性几何特征,带内断层总体走向为NW、 WNW,东部发育一系列向南突出的弧形构造带,或与造山极性及岩石圈流变学性质相关,先存的构造薄弱带对新生代的造山、隆升变形起到了不可忽视的作用(许志琴等,1992Sun Ming et al.,2018)。NW走向的鲜水河断裂是区内一条重要的新生代活动断层,具有挤压分量的左行走滑性质,向东与扬子板块西缘N-S走向的小江断裂相连,在青藏高原生长过程中具有调节挤出构造和变形的重要作用(Lei Haijia et al.,2022),也是诱发青藏高原和川西地震的主要因素(Kong Weilin et al.,2022; Ma Jun et al.,2022)。前人在对道孚—炉霍一带的火山岩-沉积岩序列进行研究时就提出,早在中—晚二叠世该断裂就已形成,并且具有大陆裂谷特征,中—新生代逆冲-走滑作用是沿早期构造薄弱带发生的继承性活动(许志琴等,19922024王小春,19992000)。研究其中生代伸展-挤压的构造转换过程有助于深入理解特提斯构造域的大陆动力学机制。

  • 2 松潘-甘孜裂谷特征及伸展过程

  • 本项工作基于野外露头地质调查和岩石薄片的显微镜下观察,对松潘-甘孜构造带内中二叠统至上三叠统进行构造-沉积充填序列进行研究,对沉积岩、岩浆岩的岩相学进行分析,同时结合已发表的玄武岩同位素年代学与地球化学数据对深部过程的解释,将松潘-甘孜构造带的伸展作用分为两个阶段:① 晚二叠世—早三叠世,初始裂谷形成期,发育正断层和近缘滑塌堆积的火山-沉积序列;② 中—晚三叠世,裂后期沉降,来自多方向的充足物源使盆地冲填了厚层砂岩、粉砂岩碎屑。

  • 2.1 初始裂谷的形成

  • 2.1.1 裂陷期火山-沉积序列

  • 丹巴—小金—宝兴—康定广大地区二叠系发育有角砾岩+玄武岩的同裂陷沉积特征。其二叠系分为乌拉尔统东大河组(P1d)灰岩,瓜德鲁普统三道桥组(P2s)碎屑岩和乐平统大石包组(P3d)玄武岩,与上覆波茨沟组(T1b)整合接触(图2)。东大河组(P1d)主要由灰黑色泥质灰岩、生物碎屑灰岩组成,属稳定碳酸盐岩台地。三道桥组(P2s)表现出高能沉积特征,是裂陷初期的沉积响应。其下部由角砾状灰岩、砾岩和粗砂岩组成,向上粒度变细,发育石英砂岩夹薄层粉砂质-泥质板岩,局部地区见薄层硅质岩或硅质岩透镜体(图2、3)。底部的粗碎屑以宝兴周边出露的角砾状灰岩最为典型(图3d、e),呈灰黑色,角砾状结构,块状构造,成分均匀且单一。灰岩角砾和基质中均含少量泥质和碳质成分。角砾成分主要是泥晶灰岩(>95%),直径最大可达10~20 cm,呈棱角状至次棱角状,分选较差,钙质胶结,未发生变质。从单一的碳酸盐岩成分和较差的分选来看,属于边坡地带滑塌堆积的塌积砾岩。小金—丹巴一带的角砾状灰岩较宝兴附近要复杂些,砾石除灰岩外可见泥岩和硅质岩(图3 a、b)。角砾岩在小金县南有出露,砾石除生物碎屑灰岩和泥晶灰岩外,还有砂岩和火山岩,成分复杂,分选和磨圆极差,基质主要为泥质成分和基性火山岩碎屑。这类岩石沉积的同时有火山物质参与,比角砾状灰岩形成时间稍晚(图3 c、f)。大石包组(P3d)玄武岩广泛分布时期是裂陷作用的顶峰,在丹巴—小金县城以南的区域分布较厚,大部分在500~1000 m之上,至康定一带甚至达到1500~2000 m厚,但在小金县附近厚度仅100 m左右。小金县东侧的玄武岩可见枕状构造(图3g),指示水下喷发环境,同时可见凝灰岩夹层(图3h)。

  • 图2 松潘-甘孜构造带及邻区大地构造位置(a)与地层分布(b)(改自Liu Songnan and Wang Yu,2023

  • Fig.2 Location (a) and stratigraphic distribution (b) in Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt and adjacent areas (modified after Liu Songnan and Wang Yu, 2023)

  • 2.1.2 火山活动与深部动力

  • 大石包组玄武岩及同期侵入的基性岩在前人工作中已有大量地球化学及年代学数据发表,在总结前人数据基础上,结合本次野外和显微镜下观察到的岩相学特征对其数据进行梳理和解释。

  • 基性岩岩相学特征。松潘-甘孜构造带内晚二叠世岩浆岩主要为溢流玄武岩和基性—超基性岩墙群。玄武岩呈灰黑色、墨绿色,斑状结构,显微镜下可见较自形的长条状基性斜长石斑晶(10%~25%)分布于基质中,基质以火山玻璃为主,含颗粒细小的辉石、橄榄石以及铁、钛氧化物,有些具气孔构造(图3i、k),靠近断层的玄武岩经历了变形、变质作用,含大量黑云母(图3j)。辉长岩、辉绿岩块体分布在二叠系中,显微镜下可见自形的单斜辉石和基性斜长石斑晶,晶粒直径2~5 mm,二者粒度相等,互相穿插,不规律的排列,显示典型的辉长结构,基质中由细粒的黑云母、橄榄石以及铁、钛氧化物组成(图3l)。

  • 基性岩地球化学与年代学特征。松潘甘孜构造带南北两侧均有辉长岩、玄武岩等基性岩出露。辉长岩结晶慢,晶粒大且晶形较好。其年龄通常指示辉长岩侵位时间,玄武岩喷出快,通常没有足够的时间在岩浆房结晶。其中的锆石大部分捕获于围岩或继承于包裹体,其年龄指示老的捕获或继承锆石的形成时间。围绕松潘-甘孜构造带南侧的宝兴—丹巴—康定—江浪一带已有锆石U-Pb数据发表,指示基性岩结晶时间在263~252 Ma之间,与峨眉山大火成岩省几乎同期(Zi Jianwei et al.,2010; Li Hongbo et al.,2016)。玄武岩表现出含大量捕获锆石的特征。变玄武岩记录了印支期和燕山期的构造事件(表1)。为了进行松潘-甘孜构造带南、北两侧的基性岩对比研究,本文采集北侧两个辉长岩样品进行LA-ICP-MS锆石U-Pb年龄分析(附表1)。用于测试分析的锆石颗粒为半自形—自形,长约80~120 μm,长短轴比在1.5~2,以岩浆锆石为主。辉长岩样品YN-920和YN-934采自松潘-甘孜构造带北缘阿尼玛卿带内(表1,图4a、b)。YN-920中用于U-Pb年龄测试的锆石共36颗。其中26颗年龄位范围为400~437 Ma,206Pb/238U加权平均年龄为418.0±5.2 Ma(MSWD=1.4)。YN-934中共有31颗锆石进行了206Pb/238U 年龄分析,全部落在266~348 Ma区间,26颗锆石的206Pb/238U加权平均年龄为290.1±5.3 Ma(MSWD=0.64)。前人在阿尼玛卿构造带内还测得了516~308 Ma的基性岩年龄,说明北侧基性岩形成时间更早,持续时间更长,与南侧是不同时代不同构造背景下的产物,其加里东至海西期持续的岩浆活动与东昆仑构造带一致(杨经绥等,2004刘战庆等,2011),属东昆仑构造带的一部分。

  • 图3 中—上二叠统火山-碎屑岩沉积的岩石学特征

  • Fig.3 Middle-Upper Permian volcanic-clastic sedimentary rock in field and microscope

  • (a~f)—三道桥组下部角砾状灰岩、角砾岩粗碎屑沉积;(g~l)—上二叠统基性火山岩与辉长岩

  • (a~f) —breccia and coarse clastic rocks from the bottom of the Sandaoqiao Formation; (g~l) —volcanic rocks and gabbro from the Upper Permian

  • 基性岩记录了地幔源区物质信息及熔融程度和结晶分异的岩浆演化过程,其地球化学特征反映了当时的大地构造背景。前人对大石包组玄武岩及丹巴—小金—康定的基性岩脉进行了大量的全岩主、微量元素分析,样品显示出相对稳定且较低的SiO2含量,属亚碱性玄武岩。根据TiO2=2.5%可将样品分为高钛玄武岩和低钛玄武岩两个系列(肖龙和许继峰2005;訾建威等,2008; Zi Jianwei et al.,2010; Li Hongbo et al.,2016; Liu Songnan and Wang Yu,2023)。样品的稀土元素和微量元素显示OIB特征(图4c、d),具有明显的轻、重稀土元素分馏,以及高的TiO2、Nb丰度和全铁含量,说明岩浆整体来自深部高压的富集型地幔源区。其中低钛玄武岩的稀土和微量元素更亏损一些,而且具有更低的全碱(Na2O+K2O)含量和更高的Mg#值,表现为拉斑质玄武岩特征,说明裂谷拉张初期大陆岩石圈较厚,在深处发生较低程度的部分熔融,从而形成高钛高碱且更富集的玄武质岩浆。随着伸展作用持续进行,岩石圈减薄,发生了更高程度的减压熔融,形成相较前者低钛低碱且稍亏损的拉斑系列玄武质岩浆。两种同源岩浆在演化过程中发生橄榄石、单斜辉石等镁铁质矿物的分离结晶,带出了大量Mg、Ni、Cr元素,从而造成样品中Mg#值较低,Ni、Cr等不相容元素含量也远低于原始岩浆。原始地幔标准化蛛网图显示样品具有明显的Pb、Sr、Zr、Hf负异常,Nb、Ta、Ti正异常,这一特征可排除陆壳混染。并且Th-Nb是识别壳源组分加入多少的可靠化学指标(Shellnutt et al.,2020)。基性岩样品在Th/Yb-Nb/Yb图中主要沿MORB-OIB系列分布,总体与埃塞俄比亚裂谷玄武岩相似,指示地壳混染轻微(图4e)。此外Li Sanzhong et al.(2016)87Sr/86Sr、143Nd/144Nd同位素特征的分析也证明结晶分异是大石包组玄武岩岩浆演化过程中的主控因素,地壳混染作用微乎其微。大石包组玄武岩在喷发时间(263~254 Ma)和地球化学组成(OIB型)特征上都与邻区的扬子板块西缘峨眉山大火成岩省一致(Li Hongbo et al.,2016; Liu Songnan and Wang Yu et al.,2023),说明二者形成于同一构造体系,是古特提斯构造域东缘二叠纪大陆岩石圈拉张减薄下的产物,也说明二叠纪松潘-甘孜构造带的伸展中心在南侧,北侧处于弱构造期。

  • 表1 松潘-甘孜构造带内基性岩样品岩性与地理位置,及其锆石206Pb/238U加权平均年龄

  • Table1 Detail information and zircon 206Pb/238U age for mafic rock samples from the Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt

  • 图4 松潘-甘孜构造带内基性岩锆石U-Pb同位素年龄(a、b)与地球化学(c~e,数据引自Liu Songnan and Wang Yu,2023

  • Fig.4 U-Pb isotope age (a, b) and geochemical data (c~e, the data are after Liu Songnan and Wang Yu, 2023) of the mafic rocks in the Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt

  • 2.2 裂后沉降期盆地充填

  • 三叠系是松潘-甘孜构造带盆地沉积的主体,在西部青海省内的地层被称为巴颜喀拉群,东部四川省内的被称为西康群,以中—上三叠统巨厚的砂板岩韵律层为主,一直以来被笼统定义为“复理石浊积岩”(龚大兴等,2019; Gong Daxing et al.,2021)。该时期地层沉积厚度大,盆地范围广,且无岩浆活动,该套地层与二叠系及下三叠统整合接触,连续沉积的,这些证据表明中—晚三叠世处于盆地裂后期沉降,是对中—晚二叠世裂陷盆地的继承和发展。

  • 中三叠统扎尕山组在红原—阿坝一带最厚,与下伏地层整合接触,主要发育钙质粉砂岩、钙质砂岩、泥灰岩、微晶灰岩的岩石组合为主,碳酸盐岩成分较多,钙质胶结,易蚀变,砂板岩韵律层较少见(图5)。可见水平层理、羽状和板状层理、波纹层理等原生沉积构造,浅海化石丰富且保存完好(闫臻等,2007),反映较低能、平静的水体环境。

  • 上三叠统杂谷脑组—侏倭组(卡尼阶)以灰黑色中厚层长石砂岩夹粉砂质板岩、薄层灰岩为主,整体表现为向上变细的沉积特征(图5)。Gong Daxing et al.(2021) 在杂谷脑和侏倭组砂岩层中发现不对称波痕、舌状槽模、斜层理、交错层理、包卷层理等沉积构造。卡尼期早期的杂谷脑组碎屑较粗,砂岩层多且单层厚度大,代表了砂质碎屑流占主导的水动力条件(Shanmugam,2000)。砂岩粒度分析表明侏倭组上段为湍流支撑悬浮搬运为主的典型浊流沉积,下段为水下分支河道及漫滩环境(龚大兴等,2019)。从盆地缺乏砾岩等粗碎屑沉积这一点可看出河流搬运的坡度较小,距离较远,整体来看更符合三角洲沉积。

  • 图5 松潘-甘孜构造带西康群沉积柱状图及野外照片

  • Fig.5 Sedimentary column and field pictures of the Xikang Group in Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt

  • 新都桥组(诺利阶)以黑灰色碳质板岩夹细砂岩为主,粒度显著变细,单层厚度减薄(图5)。该地层含更多的陆生植物化石(四川省地质矿产局,1991),尤其松潘及以东地区见煤层频繁出露,水体显著变浅,沉积岩层中普遍发育黄铁矿、菱铁矿等自生矿物,指示典型的陆相缺氧还原环境(图5)。

  • 3 松潘-甘孜构造带构造反转与陆内造山过程

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带马尔康-小金分区在新都桥组(早诺利期)之后再无沉积记录,晚诺利期的雅江组仅出露于鲜水河断裂以南,说明该时期经历了向南的海退并逐渐抬升遭受剥蚀,是松潘-甘孜构造带从盆地向造山带转变的表层体现。与此同时(~221 Ma)印支早期大规模花岗岩侵入,同造山岩浆作用启动,是挤压反转的深层动力学体现,二者共同指示松潘-甘孜构造带由伸展盆地转变为挤压造山(Zhang Hongfei et al.,2006; Yuan Chao et al.,2010; Zhang Liyun et al.,2014; Deschamps et al.,2017; Fei Guangchun et al.,2020; 卢雨潇等,2022)。此外四川盆地须家河组沉积与物源分析揭示了其与松潘-甘孜构造带造山带在空间上的盆-山耦合(Luo Liang et al.,2014; Jian Xing et al.,2019)。

  • 3.1 挤压造山的宏观表现

  • 沉积间断是构造运动的直观表现。松潘-甘孜构造带从晚诺利期开始缺失沉积记录,与此同时,东侧四川盆地、南侧昌都盆地都接受沉积且碎屑锆石分析指示物源来自邻近的松潘-甘孜构造带(图6),这在沉积学上证明了松潘-甘孜构造带在晚诺利期开始经历隆升剥蚀。

  • 构造运动的另一直观表现就是岩层发生褶皱变形和断裂破碎。据野外面状构造和线状构造的产状测量和长英质脉体、石英脉体的交切关系识别出至少存在早期N-S向强烈挤压和后期NW—WNW向的走滑-挤压两次造山作用(图7)。小金附近发育大量枢纽水平,轴面近直立,两翼呈南北向倾的尖棱褶皱,金川地区见变质的三叠系砂岩与印支期花岗岩同时卷入初糜棱岩至糜棱岩化变形,面理呈NW—WNW走向,局部见枢纽高角度倾伏(65°~90°)的倾伏褶皱、倾竖褶皱(图7)。王宗秀等(1997)对早期由北向南的收缩作用进行了较为系统的研究,提出松潘-甘孜滑脱型山链变形构造的概念,认为印支期南北向强烈收缩是松潘-甘孜构造带的造山主体,在相同应力场下由于岩石圈力学性质差异,在不同深度形成两个滑脱面,并分为三个变形域,自上至下分别为共轴压扁变形、非共轴单剪作用形成的剪切旋转为主的变形以及单剪加流动构造为主的韧性变形。目前对于挤压造山还缺乏精准的时间约束,有待进一步探索。

  • 图6 三叠纪末四川盆地(a)昌都盆地(b)碎屑锆石概率密度曲线与松潘-甘孜造山带西康群(c、d)对比

  • Fig.6 Comparison of probability density curves of detrital zircons from Sichuan basin (a) , Qamdu basin (b) and the Xikang Group of Songpan-Ganzi orogenic belt (c, d) at the end of Triassic

  • 图7 松潘-甘孜构造带挤压变形野外照片及变形示意图

  • Fig.7 Field picture and deformation sketch map in Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt

  • (a~d)—松潘-甘孜构造带内三叠系褶皱变形的野外特征;(e)—早期N-S向挤压在三叠系中形成直立的相似褶皱,两翼剪切方向相反(引自王宗秀等,1997);(f)—后期WNW向走滑示意图为俯视图,褶皱指示曾经滑动

  • (a~d) —field pictures of deformed Triassic strata in Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt; (e) —similar folding with opposite shear direction in two limbs induced by the early stage of N-S compression; (f) —sketch of the late WNW direction of strike slipping

  • 3.2 陆内造山的岩浆活动与深部作用

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带的岩浆活动主要发生于晋宁期和印支期。晋宁期的岩浆活动与华南板块的拼合有关,形成大量埃达克质岩、弧岩浆岩以及不同矿物组成的辉长岩,具有俯冲带岩浆岩组合特征,对应全球上Rodinia超大陆的形成。印支期的岩浆活动包括晚三叠世—早侏罗世遍布全区的花岗质岩石、带状零星分布的基性—超基性岩。其中花岗质岩石种类多样,包括A型、I型、S型以及高Ba-Sr型花岗岩和埃达克质花岗岩,反映了壳、幔不同源区和复杂的岩浆演化过程(Yuan Chao et al.,2010; Li Shan et al.,2022),是破解松潘-甘孜构造带印支期造山的关键证据。早期I型花岗岩的侵入将松潘-甘孜构造带的造山启动时间约束在~220 Ma(Zhang Liyun et al.,2014),与地表沉积学证据提供的时限相吻合。在水平挤压应力和三叠系巨厚沉积物垂向负载双重作用下岩石圈增厚,下地壳发生部分熔融形成最早的I型花岗岩,包括埃达克质岩石,该过程通常伴随岩石圈地幔的混染。随着挤压和岩浆作用的持续进行,加热的下地壳更易形成岩浆,三叠系浊积岩、杂砂岩也加入了熔融的行列,导致岩浆源区变得复杂,在基性和酸性岩浆混合下形成了多种多样的花岗岩类型。

  • 4 裂谷-陆内造山的动力学讨论

  • 经典的板块构造理论研究对象主要是大洋板块,且将板块视为刚性体,构造活动和变形通常沿狭窄的板块边缘发生(Wilson,1965; Morgan,1968; McKenzie and Morgan,1969)。然而陆壳的形成和演化要漫长且复杂得多,陆内造山是陆壳增厚的主要位置和关键过程,较轻的陆壳可以和下伏的地幔拆离并且形成几百至上千千米的变形带,与之相关的起源与演化必须跳出传统板块构造理论来解释(Gordon and Stein,1992Gordon,1998)。从这点来看早期槽台学说的一些观点思路对陆内造山似乎有一定借鉴意义。槽台学说针对大陆地壳进行研究,地槽被看作是构造活跃带,其经历裂陷—充填—挤压—隆升—剥蚀夷平,类似于本文讨论的裂谷-陆内造山的过程(Wang Yu,2025)。但是槽台学说强调岩石圈尺度内的垂向运动,将岩石圈重力作用视为构造发生的主导应力,忽视了地幔作用和深部过程、更忽视了水平应力的作用,从动力学角度不够完善。过去二十年间前人从岩浆动力学、构造几何学、沉积学等多方面对陆内构造开展研究,取得了丰硕成果,然而对于不同类型的陆内造山其演化过程的异同点及动力学主控因素仍存在诸多疑问。

  • 澳大利亚中部元古宙至今已经经历了多次伸展—缩短的陆内构造旋回,发生最近的一次构造事件是400~300 Ma 的Alice Springs造山,这些伸展-缩短旋回可以在大量地球物理探测中找到证据(Goleby et al.,1989; Kennett and Iaffaldano,2013)。早期的运动学模型主要用地壳增厚和大的挤压缩短量来解释地球物理特征,后来认识到岩石圈地幔也会被卷入到这种广泛且剧烈的变形中,新的模型需要考虑运动学、动力学、热力学等多方面的平衡(Kennett and Iaffaldano,2013),且多期旋回形成的先存构造及其与造山期应力场的关系对陆内造山的最终形态和强度都有影响(Silva et al.,2018)。

  • 比利牛斯造山发生在伊比利亚-欧亚大陆之间,从~84 Ma持续到~20 Ma,是现今研究程度较高的一条陆内造山带。该造山带挤压前经历了伸展作用,时空上具有继承性,由地幔俯冲、裂谷反转、挤压造山等过程构成(Tugend et al.,20142015; Teixell et al.,2018)。几何学上最大的特点就是双向逆冲、厚皮构造、反转造山(图8)。它是在前期极度伸展的(hyperextended)裂谷上发展起来的。整个造山过程中的构造形态都受控于大陆裂谷时期形成的构造框架,是前期构造带的活化和反转,而且造山过程中并未出现大规模的岩浆活动,这是与板缘造山重要的区别。造山前的比利牛斯-比斯开湾属于极度伸展的(hyperextended)裂谷体系,类似的例子还有阿尔卑斯特提斯、伊比利亚-纽芬兰裂谷体系(Manatschal et al.,2015)。对于这类极度伸展的裂谷体系而言,先存构造薄弱带对裂谷几何形态影响不大,仅影响早期应力局部化,而热力学状态和地壳物质组成才是控制裂谷体系发育的关键(Manatschal et al.,2015)。

  • 中国也有很多陆内造山带,尤其是中—新生代主要板块拼合已经完成之后,例如中生代祁连山、秦岭、雪峰山,以及新生代天山、昆仑山等(Chu Yang et al.,20152020; Li Wei et al.,2022; Wang Fujun et al.,2022)。新元古代中晚期(850~820 Ma),扬子和华夏地块沿江山—绍兴增生造山拼合成统一的华南陆块,之后经历了多期伸展—挤压的构造旋回,形成了早古生代加里东期和中生代印支期两期陆内造山作用(张国伟等,2013李三忠等,2016)。雪峰造山带存在多个滑脱层,是中生代发育大规模陆内造山的重要条件,其印支期陆内造山可被分为两个主要阶段:245~225 Ma的挤压变形以及225~215 Ma的垮塌-岩浆侵位(褚杨等,2015),具有基底卷入的厚皮构造,和较活跃的岩浆作用,与缺乏岩浆岩的比利牛斯造山带有所不同。前人通过数值模拟揭示岩石圈结构对陆内造山的影响,结果显示当地壳黏度系数大,相较于下部岩石圈地幔密度高、厚度小的时候,会在水平缩短和陆壳增厚的正下方形成岩石圈下沉;反之会在边缘形成两侧对称的岩石圈下沉,同时陆内造山期间,在岩石圈温度较高、厚度较薄且脆弱的部位会持续发生岩浆活动(Molnar and Houseman,2004)。这一模拟结果或许可以解释陆内造山带有些缺乏岩浆活动(比利牛斯造山),有些岩浆作用活跃(如天山、华南陆内造山)。

  • 图8 比利牛斯陆内造山构造样式图(引自Teixell et al.,2018

  • Fig.8 The Pyrenean intracontinental orogeny pattern (modified after Teixell et al., 2018)

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带裂陷期的火山-沉积特征与比利牛斯石炭纪—二叠纪沉积类似,并且沿道孚—炉霍一带零星分布有中—晚二叠世的混杂岩带。带内包含基性—超基性岩、玄武质火山角砾岩、凝灰岩、灰岩、灰岩角砾岩等(王小春,19992000)。这说明松潘-甘孜构造带内局部区域裂陷期伸展程度很高,与比利牛斯地幔剥露的极度伸展裂谷(hyperextended rift)相当,但裂后沉降期由于物源充足,沉积的地层厚度远大于比利牛斯构造带。此外,从时间上来看,松潘-甘孜构造带裂陷期持续了仅~10 Ma,裂后期持续了约30 Ma,随后就发生了应力场反转,其伸展作用的持续时间相较比利牛斯构造带要短很多(图9)。应力场如何发生反转是研究松潘-甘孜构造带裂谷-陆内造山不可回避的问题。结合大地构造背景和深部动力学特征分析,考虑到裂后期岩石圈-软流圈逐渐冷却,伸展作用减弱甚至停止,与此同时恰逢板块边缘发生印支期造山,仅靠重力负载形成的侧向伸展无法与板缘传递过来的挤压应力场抗衡,松潘-甘孜遂快速从伸展盆地转变为陆内造山。随后在挤压应力场下发生不同层次的变形,两个滑脱面将其分为三个变形域(王宗秀等,1997),变形特点主要受不同深度岩石圈力学性质差异影响,这一点在上述提到的多个造山带都有体现,可以归纳为陆内造山的共性特征。松潘-甘孜构造带既不像比利牛斯构造带一样呈对称的几何形态,也不具备一般造山带的线性几何特征,而是向东呈多个弧形,可能与反转前后两期应力场叠加的夹角有关,前人研究表明当新一期应力场方向与先存薄弱带展布方向以一定角度斜交时,不同演化时期发育的断裂性质及方向存在差异,最终形成复杂的构造样式(Morley,2010; Agostini et al.,2011Corti,2012)。上述提到岩石圈结构影响岩浆活动(Molnar and Houseman,2004),松潘-甘孜构造带伸展程度较高形成地壳黏度系数小、密度高,力学性质接近下部岩石圈地幔,这种特征有利于同造山岩浆侵入,与观察到的印支期大量花岗岩地质事实相符。

  • 图9 松潘-甘孜构造带(a)与比利牛斯构造带(b)陆内造山的对比图(引自 Wang Yu,2025

  • Fig.9 Rift-intracontinental orogeny evolution of the Songpan-Ganzi tectonic belt (a) and Pyrenees orogenic belt (b) (cited from Wang Yu, 2025)

  • 5 结论

  • 松潘-甘孜构造带作为在盆地上发展起来的中—新生代复合型造山带,受岩石圈力学性质差异、应力场叠加方式等条件影响,具有复杂的演化史和造山极性。中—晚二叠世至三叠纪末发育大陆裂谷到陆内造山的构造演化,可概括为三阶段:① 中—晚二叠世在Pangea大陆裂解背景下,古特提斯东缘发育大规模裂谷体系并伴随火山喷发,与峨眉山大火成岩省同期,松潘-甘孜构造带在大约263~252 Ma形成陆内裂谷的初始形态,发育角砾状灰岩、角砾岩、火山角砾岩等粗碎屑沉积,并伴有辉长岩侵入和大规模玄武岩的喷发。② 中—晚三叠世转入裂后沉降期,盆地范围显著扩大,广泛沉积了砂岩、粉砂岩韵律层,无岩浆活动。③ 由于裂后期岩石圈-软流圈逐渐冷却,伸展作用减弱甚至停止,此时恰逢印支期大规模造山,松潘-甘孜构造带在诺利晚期发生构造反转和褶皱造山,受岩石圈结构影响,伴随大量中酸性岩浆活动。该演化模型促进了古特提斯地质演化的研究,也为进一步理解陆内构造提供了研究思路。

  • 致谢:本文是作者对博士期间工作的总结凝练与进一步思考,感谢曾经对该工作提出过宝贵意见的高山林研究员、何登发教授、颜丹平教授、杨天南教授以及两位审稿人。

  • 附件:本文附件(附表1)详见http://www.geojournals.cn/dzxb/dzxb/article/abstract/202501092?st=article_issue

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