磷灰石裂变径迹年代学在矿床研究中的应用
doi: 10.19762/j.cnki.dizhixuebao.2024216
纪璇1 , 刘英超1 , 岳龙龙1 , 马旺2
1. 深地探测与矿产勘查全国重点实验室,中国地质科学院地质研究所,北京, 100037
2. 中国地质大学(北京)地球科学与资源学院,北京, 100083
基金项目: 本文为地质调查项目(编号 DD20243512,DD20230008) ; 国家重点研发计划(编号 2022YFF0800903) ; 国家自然科学基金项目(编号 92162322, 42261144669, 42302107, 41922022, 42003036) ; 国家博士后科研流动站项目(编号 GZC20232489) ; 第二次青藏高原科学考察与研究项目(编号 2021QZKK0304) ; 云南省兴滇英才青年项目(编号 XDYCQNRC-2022-0136) ; 国际地学对比计划项目(编号 IGCP-662)联合资助的成果
Application of apatite fission track thermochronology to mineral deposits: A review
JI Xuan1 , LIU Yingchao1 , YUE Longlong1 , MA Wang2
1. State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth and Mineral Exploration, Institute of Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037 , China
2. School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083 , China
摘要
磷灰石裂变径迹年代学是一种基于磷灰石238U自发裂变产生辐射损伤效应的低温热年代学方法。磷灰石封闭温度低且对温度变化敏感,可以记录热事件时代、持续时间、分布特征以及活动速率等重要信息。传统外探测器法(EDM)采用热中子辐照诱发磷灰石235U裂变产生裂变径迹,进而通过校正计算获得裂变径迹的年龄,激光剥蚀电感耦合等离子体质谱(LA-ICP-MS)法可直接分析获得238U的含量,方便快捷,电子探针(EPMA)法、原子力显微镜(AFM)作为辅助手段可以实现更加精确的裂变径迹数量统计。目前,实验方法、退火动力学模型、数据解译等方面在精确度、全面性以及如何更好地结合地质事实等方面还存在不足,需要继续完善。尽管如此,磷灰石裂变径迹年代学结果和热演化模拟在厘定热液矿床的成矿时代、划分成矿期次、约束热液矿化持续时间、定量矿床的隆升-剥蚀量等多个方面均发挥了巨大的作用,在厘定矿床的保存变化规律、预测隐伏矿床及矿体等方面拥有更为广阔的发展前景和应用空间。
Abstract
Apatite fission track chronology is a low-temperature thermochronological method based on the radiation damage effectscaused by the spontaneous fission of 238U in apatite. Due to its low closure temperature and high sensitivity to temperature changes, apatite can record important information such as the timing, duration, distribution characteristics, and activity rates of thermal events. The traditional external detector method (EDM) uses thermal neutron irradiation to generate induced fission tracks from 235U in apatite, followed by correction calculations to determine the fission track age. More recently, laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) has emerged as a faster and more convenient method for directly analyzing the 238U content in apatite. Auxiliary techniques such as electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and atomic force microscope (AFM) can enhance the accuracy of fission track statistics. Despite these advancements, challenges remain in improving the accuracy and comprehensiveness of experimental methods, annealing dynamic models, and data interpretation. The integration of these analytical tools with geological evidence needs to be continuously upgraded. Nevertheless, apatite fission track chronology and thermal evolution simulation have played a great role in determining the metallogenic age of hydrothermal deposits, dividing metallogenic stages, restricting the duration of hydrothermal mineralization, and quantifying the uplift and exhumation amounts of ore deposits. It has a broader development prospect and application space in determining the preservation and change law of deposits, predicting concealed deposit and ore bodies, and so on.
热年代学是根据矿物封闭温度来解释同位素地质年龄数据,重建地质体经历热历史的一种地质年代学方法。同位素衰变或裂变产生的子体同位素或物理损伤在低于封闭温度条件下的岩石和矿物中积累并记录地质年龄(Berger and York,1981Reiners et al.,2005Reiners et al.,2017)。低温热年代学(封闭温度为40~300℃)包括裂变径迹(FT)和(U-Th)/He两个定年体系(Price and Walker,1962Enkelmann and Garver,2016常健和邱楠生,2017赖红玉等,2020)。裂变径迹年代学具有测试仪器简单、矿物用量少、测定年龄范围宽等优点,常被用于厘定地壳5 km以内热事件的时代、持续时间、分布特征以及活动速率等重要信息(Reiners et al.,2005周祖翼,2014黄勇等,2021),与其他地质年代学手段相结合可准确恢复热液矿化和剥蚀事件的持续时间(McInnes et al.,2005),重塑低温热历史(Kohn and Green,2002沈传波等,2005Shen Chuanbo et al.,2012)。磷灰石由于结晶程度良好,通常富含U且其含量一般分布均匀,矿物透明度高、包裹体较少,在火成岩、变质岩和沉积岩中普遍存在而被广泛应用于定年(Wagner,1968Gleadow et al.,2002Donelick et al.,2005)。
磷灰石裂变径迹年代学在矿床学的研究与其他年代学方法相比,不仅获得年龄值,同时可以揭示与成矿相关热事件的一系列信息,这对理解矿床的成矿过程十分重要。近些年来,该方法在卡林型金矿(Chakurian et al.,2003Huang Yong et al.,2019)、造山型金矿(Zhang Liang et al.,2017Zhang Rongwei et al.,2019)、浅成低温热液型金矿(Li Yongquan et al.,2019Zhao Xiaobo et al.,2021)等中低温矿床,斑岩型铜-金矿床(Yang Huanhuan et al.,2018Sun Min et al.,2021)、斑岩型铜-钼矿床(Zhou Aorigele et al.,2019Leng Yaxing et al.,2022)等中高温矿床的成矿年龄、隆升-剥蚀速率等方面均取得了很好的结果。总体上,磷灰石裂变径迹在限制矿化时代和持续时间,揭示矿床的动力学背景,重建热液系统的热演化历史,计算矿床的剥露、侵蚀速率,厘清矿床的变化与保存规律,识别潜在埋藏储量(McInnes et al.,2005Márton et al.,2010Huang Yong et al.,2019)等方面存在巨大的应用潜力。然而,目前该方法在径迹数量统计误差控制(陈洁瑜等,2023Sun Jingbo et al.,2023杨静等,2023)、退火动力学参数多元化(Green,1989Carlson et al.,1999沈传波等,2005Ketcham et al.,2007程璐瑶等,2021)等方面还存在不足;在实际应用中受到磷灰石U元素含量的限制,在独立厘定绝对成矿年龄方面还需要其他定年方法的约束(Donelick et al.,2005Gleadow et al.,2019Cogné and Gallagher,2021)。本文系统总结了磷灰石裂变径迹年代学的原理、研究方法、研究进展及其在热液矿床中的应用情况,详细梳理其存在的主要问题与挑战,并对磷灰石裂变径迹年代学未来在矿床学领域的应用进行了展望。
1 裂变径迹年代学基本原理
放射性同位素原子核从一种核能态发生自发核跃迁转变为另一种核素,通过发出射线或粒子进行能量释放的过程为放射性同位素衰变(Banner,2004陈献武,2011)。放射性衰变类型包括α衰变、β衰变、γ衰变、电子俘获衰变、核裂变等(Groch,1998Pfützner et al.,2012)。裂变径迹年代学就是基于U同位素核裂变的原理开展研究。天然放射性U同位素有234U、235U、238U三种,238U发生α衰变最终会形成稳定的206Pb核,238U自发核裂变一般会分裂为2~3个中等质量的带电粒子碎片,释放大量动能,粒子碎片之间发生反向高速运动(图1aGallagher et al.,1998Donelick et al.,2005Weyer et al.,2008Zagrebaev and Greiner,2010)。高速运动的裂变子体携带大量正电荷,穿过矿物晶格这一固态绝缘体时,沿途剥离并激发晶格电子,库伦斥力作用下,正离子簇发生爆炸式的相互反冲,电子位移产生大量的间隙和空位,电子达到新的平衡状态,晶格结构发生变形和弹性应变(晶格弛豫)(图1bFleischer et al.,1965Young,1997Gleadow et al.,2002),这个过程在矿物晶格留下的损伤痕迹为裂变径迹。
1238U自发裂变产生矿物晶格损伤示意图(据Fleischer et al.,1965Gleadow et al.,2002田朋飞等,2020
Fig.1Schematic diagram of mineral lattice damage caused by 238U spontaneous fission (after Fleischer et al., 1965; Gleadow et al., 2002; Tian Pengfei et al., 2020)
裂变径迹近似线形,随机定向分布,由受损的晶格区域组成,长度一般小于20 μm,宽为3~14 nm(Paul and Fitzgerald,1992;Rabone et al.,2008;Li Weixing et al.,2012)。每一条自发裂变径迹都代表单独的核裂变事件,不会受到其他衰变的影响(Donelick et al.,2005Tagami and O'Sullivan,2005)。裂变径迹会随着地质时间不断积累在矿物晶格内,因此可以用于地质事件的年龄测定(Green,1989周海和雷川,2013杨莉等,2022)。想要比较完整的保留径迹并准确测定地质事件年龄,需要测试矿物具备一定的特征,比如,① 平行晶体c轴的裂变径迹最耐火,因为结晶度良好且可以确定c轴取向的晶体能够记录更全面的信息(Donelick et al.,1999Ketcham,2003);② 晶体中含有可以产生足够数量裂变径迹的U元素;③ 在复杂的地质环境中可以很好地保存晶格中的裂变径迹;④ 晶体透明度好,可以更好地显示径迹密度、长度等信息;⑤ 在岩浆岩、沉积岩、变质岩这三大类岩石中常见(Gleadow et al.,2002Donelick et al.,2005)。目前发现适用于裂变径迹年代学方法的矿物主要有磷灰石[Ca5(PO43(F,Cl,OH)]、锆石[ZrSiO4]和榍石[CaTi(SiO4)O],上述矿物均含有足够量的U元素(一般>10×10-6),可以在地质时间尺度产生具有统计意义的自发裂变径迹。其中,磷灰石具有明显的优势:① 磷灰石作为副矿物广泛发育在地壳各类岩石中,且存在近端元成分几乎没有发生类质同象取代的磷灰石;② 磷灰石结晶良好且不发育强解理,可以抵抗化学风化并在(近)地表地质过程中很好地保存下来;③磷灰石具有足够发生自发裂变径迹的U含量(1×10-6~200×10-6);④在低于120℃环境下,磷灰石的自发裂变径迹可以保持相对稳定(Wagner,1968Gallagher et al.,1998Donelick et al.,2005Chew et al.,2012);⑤ 磷灰石具有优异的光学特性,基本不含杂质和位错蚀刻坑,便于观察(Donelick et al.,2005);⑥磷灰石是对裂变径迹热退火最敏感的矿物之一,可以更好地记录温度变化及对应热事件的时代(Fleischer and Price,1964Gleadow and Lovering,1974Gleadow et al.,2002)。因此,磷灰石在裂变径迹年代学实际应用中占主导地位。
2 磷灰石裂变径迹年代学实验方法
2.1 传统外探测器法(EDM)
裂变径迹年代学本质是测量矿物晶格中自发裂变径迹积累的数量、238U含量,根据计算的自发裂变速率来进行年龄测定(Wagner et al.,1968Gleadow et al.,2002)。自发裂变径迹数量主要是在镜下对蚀刻后的径迹进行观察和计数,用以计算裂变径迹密度,计算的区域不应存在大的表面缺陷,如裂纹和大的蚀刻坑(常远等,2004Donelick et al.,2005Kohn et al.,2019)。
传统外探测器法无法直接测得磷灰石238U的含量,需要在核裂变反应堆中,用热中子轰击磷灰石颗粒诱发235U裂变产生径迹(Galbraith et al.,1990Hurford,2019)。结合天然238U和235U的固定比率(Steiger and Jäger,1977),根据235U诱发裂变径迹密度间接计算得到238U的含量。诱发重核裂变,必要条件是外来激发能量(中子结合能)超过裂变势垒(裂变激活能),238U的裂变势垒大于中子结合能,热中子的能量不足以引起238U裂变,而235U的中子结合能大于其裂变势垒,容易被运动速度与室温下气体分子运动速度相似的热中子裂变(常远等,2004Donelick et al.,2005Verbeke et al.,2010陈献武,2011)。235U的热中子俘获截面明显大于238U、234U和232Th,将U和Th元素的天然混合物暴露在热中子流内,热中子轰击更有利于诱发235U裂变,其他U和Th同位素的裂变可以忽略不计(Chew et al.,2012Kumar et al.,2015)。
传统外探测器法的具体操作步骤为:① 挑选出岩石样品中的磷灰石矿物(通常需要几百粒),装在玻璃载玻片上的环氧膜中,经过机械抛光和研磨,将矿物颗粒内表面呈现出来,随后在室温下用稀释的硝酸进行化学蚀刻,使自发裂变径迹显示出来(Wagner,1968Gleadow et al.,2002),统计自发径迹密度。② 在与磷灰石颗粒密切接触的位置放置由低铀白云母和标准铀玻璃组成的外部探测器,将组装好的磷灰石样品置于热中子反应堆中进行辐照,在热中子的轰击作用下,磷灰石中235U产生诱发裂变径迹,并在白云母外接探测器内留下与磷灰石晶体表面呈镜像的诱发裂变径迹(Donelick et al.,2005;Enkelmann et al,2012;Kohn et al.,2019)。③对白云母片上的诱发径迹进行同样的化学蚀刻操作,统计诱发径迹的密度(图2),而磷灰石晶体内的诱发裂变径迹未被蚀刻且不可见。
2外探测器法原理及实验步骤示意图(据Gallagher et al.,1998
Fig.2Schematic diagram showing the principle and experimental procedure of external detector method (after Gallagher et al., 1998)
传统外接探测器法计算年龄的公式为t=1λDln1+λDIσϕg1λfρsρi,其中t为裂变径迹年龄(Ma),λD238U总的裂变径迹衰变常数(1.55125×10-10 a-1Jaffey et al.,1971),I235U/238U的同位素比值(7.2527×10-3;Cowan and Adler,1976;Hurford,1990),σ235U的热中子横截面积(5.802×10-22 cm2Hanna et al.,1969Hurford,1990),φ为接收的总热中子通量,g为磷灰石表面径迹配准形状的几何因子(抛光后磷灰石g=0.5;天然磷灰石g=1;Hurford and Green,1983Donelick et al.,2005),λf238U自发裂变径迹衰变常数(Holden and Hoffman,2000),ρsρi为自发裂变径迹与诱发裂变径迹密度的比值(Fleischer and Price,1964Naeser,1967)。热中子通量φ可以根据云母外探测器上的标准铀玻璃中的诱发径迹密度ρd计算获得,φ=d;其中,B为比例常数。
不同研究者根据不同方法测量的238U自发裂变径迹衰变常数λf值范围较大,尚未得到统一的数值(Bigazzi,1981;Green and Hurford,1984),热中子通量φ的绝对定量也十分困难,以上问题会导致最终的裂变径迹年龄数据存在较大误差。研究者提出利用已知年龄的标准铀玻璃对样品年龄进行校准,获得Zeta常数 ζ=σIB/λfHurford and Green,1983Hurford,1990Tagami and Nishimura,1992)。因此,传统外探测器法裂变径迹年龄计算公式可以表示为t=1λDln1+λDζgρdρsρi。不同实验室、不同实验者测得的Zeta常数存在差异,需要反复确认。
传统外探测器法是一种原位、非破坏性的方法,一个实验流程后重新对样品打磨和蚀刻,还可开展后续新的分析(Dias et al.,2017武利民等,2021),其优势在于白云母外部探测器上统计诱发裂变径迹的位置和磷灰石颗粒内诱发径迹镜像对应,不会受到磷灰石中U含量不均匀的影响;可以获得单颗粒磷灰石年龄,有利于分析不同矿物颗粒之间的年龄差异以及样品的总平均年龄值(Hasebe et al.,2004Chew et al.,2012Kohn et al.,2019Seiler et al.,2023)。然而,外探测器法也存在一些缺点,例如测试周期长,放射物质的安全隐患,实验过程中存在的不确定因素可能会影响实验的准确性,如人为测量自发裂变径迹密度和诱发裂变径迹密度的误差、238U裂变常数的不确定性和中子通量检测困难等(Donelick et al.,2005Vermeesch,2017Seiler et al.,2023),这些因素都可能会影响裂变径迹年龄结果。
2.2 LA-ICP-MS法
激光剥蚀电感耦合等离子体质谱(LA-ICP-MS)分析方法是通过原位测量技术,直接获得矿物中238U的含量,不再需要热中子辐照,在分析过程中选择43Ca或44Ca作为内标校正剥蚀体积的变化(Jarvis and Williams,1993;Gao Shao et al.,2002;Barbarand et al.,2003aGaboardi and Humayun,2009Guibaldo et al.,2022),使用已知U、CaO含量和年龄的NIST610、NIST612标准玻璃作为外标校准238U浓度(Pearce,1997Jochum et al.,2011Cogné et al.,2020),标样与磷灰石样品测量程序相同,以监测信号和气体稳定性(Jarvis and Williams,1993Hasebe et al.,2004Chew et al.,2012)。
磷灰石LA-ICP-MS裂变径迹定年有两种年龄计算方法(Hasebe et al.,2004Vermeesch,2017Cogné et al.,2020)。其中,绝对年龄法不需要ζ校准,不依赖约束年龄的标样,但是,玻璃、矿物对激光剥蚀的反应和电离过程存在较大的差异,会发生基体效应(Ødegård,1999Chew et al.,2016Vermeesch,2017),产生系统误差。不同化学成分矿物的密度差异也会影响绝对年龄结果,LA-ICP-MS对同位素含量的测量也存在一定的不确定性(Hasebe et al.,2004Vermeesch,2017Penanes et al.,2022Seiler et al.,2023),λf常数的不统一问题等均会降低绝对年龄的精确度。因此,研究者陆续提出使用与EDM类似的Zeta法校正LA-ICP-MS裂变径迹法的定年结果(Hurford and Green,1982Hurford and Green,1983)。Zeta法校正引入一个校正常数ζ提高数据的准确性并使用43Ca作为内标(Hasebe et al.,2004Donelick et al.,2005Chew et al.,2012),这也是目前实验室应用最广泛的方法。计算公式为t=1λDln1+λDζicpgρsCu,其中,ζicp是测得的238U/43Ca信号与约束238U含量相关因素归一化的Zeta校正常数, Cu为LA测得的238U浓度,一般使用238U/43Ca比率带入计算(Donelick et al.,2005Chew et al.,2012李卓然,2016Vermeesch,2017)。
LA-ICP-MS法与传统的外部探测器方法相比,不再需要热中子辐照诱发235U裂变,省去云母片安装、样品辐照、云母片化学蚀刻和诱发径迹统计等传统的测量流程,但在单矿物分选、制样、研磨、抛光、化学蚀刻以及自发裂变径迹的镜下统计等操作步骤与EDM法一致。这不仅缩短了分析周期,大大提高了分析速度和样品通量,还避免了放射性废物的处理,降低了人为因素的影响,节约成本且操作简便(Donelick et al.,2005Chew et al.,2012Cogné et al.,2020Ansberque et al.,2021)。但是,当磷灰石颗粒的径迹计数偏少,密度低时(<1.105/cm2),AFT年龄的精度会降低(Ansberque et al.,2021)。因此,在统计过程中,自发裂变径迹数量的范围需要与U元素含量测得点位对应,可以选择裂变径迹分布均匀的位置或者同时选择多个相同大小的位置求其平均值来降低裂变径迹的计数误差(图3)(Vermeesch,2017Guibaldo et al.,2022Seiler et al.,2023)。也可以利用激光剥蚀四级杆电感耦合等离子体质谱(LA-Q-ICP-MS)元素面扫描生成整个磷灰石表面238U/43Ca的分布图来实现U分带的表征,选取238U含量均匀区域进行裂变径迹计数(Ansberque et al.,2021)。但面扫与单点分析相比,时间成本高,测试费用更昂贵,在必要情况下可酌情使用(Cogné et al.,2020Cogné and Gallagher,2021)。
3LA-ICP-MS法裂变径迹计数位置示意图(据Gleadow et al.,2002Vermeesch,2017Cogné and Gallagher,2021
Fig.3Schematic diagram of fission track counting position by LA-ICP-MS (after Gleadow et al., 2002; Vermeesch, 2017; Cogné and Gallagher, 2021)
(a)—选择一个区域作为剥蚀点位;(b)—选择一个区域内多个剥蚀点位
(a) —select an area as the denudation point; (b) —select multiple denudation sites in an area
LA-ICP-MS法的准确性可能会受到矿物中U元素分布不均匀、样品与标样之间含量差异以及基体效应的影响,产生一定的误差,使用相似成分、结构和烧蚀转化效率的标样可以提高测试的准确性(Ødegård,1999Hasebe et al.,2004Cogné and Gallagher,2021)。尽管如此,随着现代微区分析技术的发展,LA-ICP-MS法不仅相对于传统外探测器法操作简便,还可以提供磷灰石U-Pb年龄数据、Cl和稀土元素含量等化学组分信息,对理解磷灰石中裂变径迹的热退火动力学过程、建立时间-温度历史热模拟(Ketcham,2005Chew et al.,2012Vermeesch,2017)、获取母岩信息(Sha Liankun and Chappell,1999Belousova et al.,2002O'Sullivan et al.,2020Ansberque et al.,2021)具有重要意义,今后可能成为裂变径迹分析的主流方法(李天义等,2013任战利等,2014)。
2.3 其他方法
当磷灰石裂变径迹密度较高(>104/cm2)时,在普通光学显微镜下难以准确观测相互重叠的径迹数量和长度(<1.5 μm),研究者发现原子力显微镜(AFM)可以用来解决高径迹密度问题(黄三玻等,2011Ohishi and Hasebe,2012)。AFM具有纳米级的分辨率,不需要真空环境,不需要镀碳层等预处理,就可以观察到更小的径迹(Yamamoto et al.,1999程敏熙和熊钰庆,2000黄三玻等,2011Ohishi and Hasebe,2012),一定程度上缩短了化学蚀刻的时间(Brown and Liu Zhihui,1996Yasuda et al.,2001Johnson et al.,2009)。AFM不仅可以获得密度高、尺寸小的裂变径迹三维信息(Nikezic et al.,2002Johnson et al.,2009),测试过程也不会赋予矿物任何形式的能量,不会影响退火。但是,AFM实验时间较长、成本较高,且需要样品表面绝对光滑(Ohishi and Hasebe,2012)。目前,AFM要实现在裂变径迹年代学领域的广泛应用,不仅需要对分析的裂变径迹模型进一步优化,还需要通过详细研究蚀刻程度与径迹变化的关系,开发出AFM图像中径迹的检验标准(Yasuda et al.,2001Ohishi and Hasebe,2012)。
电子探针裂变径迹(EPMA-FT)法是基于背散射电子(BSE)图像识别裂变径迹与抛光面的交点,统计自发裂变径迹的数量。矿物U的含量通过配套的波谱仪(WDS)定量分析,无需进行样品辐照(Fayon and Baird,2005;黄勇等,2021)。电子探针分析法的优势在于无损测试(Lavrent'ev et al.,2015Rinaldi and Llovet,2015),比光学显微镜具有更高的分辨率,可以实现更精确的裂变径迹密度的统计;同时也可以实现卤素元素(Cl等)的定量分析,有助于进一步理解径迹退火效应与矿物颗粒成分和辐射损伤之间的关系(Green et al.,1986Chew et al.,2012Gombosi et al.,2014)。已有学者将电子探针裂变径迹法(EPMA-FT)应用于高U元素含量、自发裂变径迹密度过大、径迹重叠严重的锆石(Gombosi et al.,2014Dias et al.,2017Gleadow et al.,2019),为磷灰石裂变径迹年代学提供了新思路。
3 径迹退火行为及原理
裂变径迹在温度低于120℃情况下才能保留在磷灰石矿物内,随着温度和升温时间的增加,径迹会变短直至消失的特性为退火行为。温度、磷灰石化学成分、晶体学取向、径迹与结晶轴方位角、蚀刻条件和压力等都会影响退火行为(Carlson et al.,1999Donelick et al.,1999Ketcham et al.,1999Wendt et al.,2002Guedes et al.,2007Schmidt et al.,2014)。例如,从样品测量的裂变径迹参数中重建热历史的过程,磷灰石的成分变化对裂变径迹退火速率有重大影响。因此,热历史建模需要基于特定成分的磷灰石标样,建立退火算法,样品和标样之间的相似性或差异性将决定建模程序对单个样品的适用性程度(Barbarand et al.,2003a)。建模程序中,单个磷灰石晶粒或晶粒群组退火行为是与退火动力学参数相关的函数,(Green et al.,1986Ketcham et al.,2007;Sobel and Seward,2010),可用来建立评估裂变径迹在地质时间尺度上的行为模型,重现热历史(Crowley,1993Gallagher,1995Laslett and Galbraith,1996Ketcham et al.,2000)。
3.1 退火动力学参数
退火动力学参数是指在裂变径迹年代学中用于描述径迹退火过程的可测量参数,通过测量和分析这些参数的变化,了解磷灰石颗粒对裂变径迹退火的敏感性和反应速率,从而推断出岩石的热历史和年龄。常见的动力学参数包括:平行于晶体c轴的裂变径迹蚀刻直径的算术平均值DparBurtner et al.,1994)、磷灰石中氯元素含量(Cl(%))(Donelick,1993)、羟基含量(OH-)(Gleadow et al.,1986Green et al.,1986)、红外(IR)显微光谱(红外吸收特性是磷灰石F、Cl元素含量的函数)(Siddall and Hurford,1998)、磷灰石中由微量U和Th元素的α衰变引起的α粒子损伤积累等(Ketcham et al.,1999Donelick et al.,2005)。其中,蚀刻直径的算术平均值和磷灰石的Cl元素含量是目前实验室最常用的2个动力学常数。
Dpar参数通常使用光学显微镜进行测量,操作简单但需要对蚀刻试剂浓度、蚀刻时间和温度等条件进行精确控制(Murrell et al.,2009程璐瑶等,2021)。在实际应用时,①一般认为动力学参数Dpar相对较低的磷灰石颗粒属于典型近端元组分的钙-氟磷灰石,比Dpar相对较高的磷灰石退火速度快(Carlson et al.,1999);②在富含OH-的磷灰石以及发生Mn、Fe、稀土元素等非常规阳离子类质同象替代的磷灰石中,Dpar对退火行为的表征效果不好(Carlson et al.,1999Ravenhurst et al.,2003);③对于较窄Dpar值范围的样品,通常选择前20个随机的、可用的磷灰石颗粒进行年龄测量,前100个左右随机的、封闭的裂变径迹进行长度测量(Donelick et al.,2005陈洁瑜等,2023);④对于较宽Dpar值范围的磷灰石,一般通过增加磷灰石数量或统计裂变径迹较多的磷灰石颗粒来降低误差(Donelick et al.,2005Chew et al.,2012),提高数据精确度。磷灰石的Dpar不仅受化学组成(特别是Cl元素含量)的控制,磷灰石积累的α粒子损伤、结晶年龄、形成温度、变形历史等也会影响Dpar值(Donelick et al.,2005)。磷灰石的动力学参数Cl含量(%)通常使用电子探针(EPMA)进行测量,为了防止卤素受电子束的影响发生诱导扩散,磷灰石中的F、Cl元素含量需要在与晶体c轴平行的平面上进行分析(Stormer et al.,1993Stock et al.,2015);同时应该测量Ca或P元素的含量,用于评估分析测试质量,控制误差。在实际应用时,具有相对较高Cl元素含量(>1%~2%)的磷灰石颗粒通常退火速度较慢,更耐退火,在地质环境中完全退火的温度约为100~120℃(Green et al.,1986Fitzgerald et al.,1995)。
事实上,裂变径迹蚀刻直径的算术平均值Dpar与动力学参数Cl含量(%)对退火动力学的影响作用是耦合的(Donelick et al.,2005)。例如,当最抗退火的磷灰石颗粒(即Dpar≥3.00 μm;Cl>3%)在大于160℃的温度下才经历完全退火(Ketcham et al.,1999Donelick et al.,2005)。当最不抗退火的磷灰石颗粒进入完全退火区时,最抗退火的磷灰石颗粒刚进入部分退火区,如果温度达到使最不抗退火的磷灰石颗粒中的裂变径迹完全退火,径迹长度数据将完全由最抗退火的动力学类型表示(图4)。所以,最好是在其他参数变化最小的情况下,探索Cl元素含量对磷灰石裂变径迹退火动力学的影响(Donelick et al.,1999Barbarand et al.,2003a)。
如果只是研究磷灰石裂变径迹退火的一般性质,单颗粒磷灰石就可以实现(Green et al.,1986田云涛等,2009),裂变径迹年龄和长度数据的组合在磷灰石颗粒的退火动力学方面是混合的,不是单一的动力学系统。在热历史模拟时需要根据动力学参数将同一样品中的磷灰石颗粒进行分组(Gleadow et al.,2002Barbarand et al.,2003a)。除上述两种主要动力学参数以外,如果目标是基于阳离子(如F2+、Mn2+、REE3+等)或阴离子(如OH-)取代来研究动力学参数更广泛的变化,那么需要选择涵盖两种类质同象取代类型的磷灰石来解决这个问题(Carlson et al.,1999常远等,2004)。目前,常用裂变径迹退火研究的磷灰石类型主要为:杜兰戈氟磷灰石(Barbarand et al.,2003a)、靠近端元的氟磷灰石和富含Sr的氟磷灰石(Carlson et al.,1999)、含有不同Cl含量的钙磷灰石(Carlson et al.,1999Barbarand et al.,2003a)、存在显著卤素类质同象替换阳离子的磷灰石。
3.2 退火动力学模型
磷灰石裂变径迹数据的热模拟是根据退火动力学模型实现的,描述磷灰石裂变径迹在地质时间尺度上行为的模型与计算机程序相结合,通过对裂变径迹数据的拟合,可以恢复热历史(Green et al.,1989Gallagher,1995Ketcham et al.,1999)。学者们最初提出的退火动力学模型主要是将退火持续时间(t)和退火温度(T)联系起来,lnrtT=βln1-ttexp-EakT,其中rtT)为减少的径迹长度,β是与蚀刻相关的参数,k是玻尔兹曼常数,Eat0分别具有能量和时间的维度(Rana,2007Rana et al.,2021)。
随着学界对退火动力学参数的认识越来越成熟,完善了多元退火动力学模型:1-rβ/βα-1α=c0+c1lnt-c2ln1t-c3,其中,αβ为拟合参数,c0、c1、c2、c3为拟合常数(Ketcham et al.,1999),由于不同磷灰石的退火动力学变化很大,因此需要采用一些方法来解释这种变化,任意两种耐退火程度不同的磷灰石在相同热条件下进行退火,其实验室退火长度可以用公式rlr=rmr-rmr01-rmr0k描述,其中rmrrlr为更耐退火和更不耐退火的磷灰石径迹缩短长度,rmr0k为拟合参数(Ketcham et al.,2000Ketcham,2005)。研究者还提出两个方程来分别描述动力学参数Dpar和Cl(%)的rmr0rmr0=1-exp[0.647(Dpar-1.75)-1.834]和rmr0=1-exp {2.107[1-abs(Cl-1)]-1.834}(Carlson et al.,1999Ketcham et al.,1999),根据上述公式,相关的热历史模拟软件(AFTSolve和HeFTy)被开发并广泛应用(Ketcham et al.,1999Ketcham et al.,2003Ketcham,2005)。合理的退火模型是磷灰石裂变径迹热历史模拟符合地质事实的重要保障,因此,不断完善和标准化退火动力学模型是提高磷灰石热历史记录精确度的重要手段,更全面地研究磷灰石裂变径迹退火的影响因素是基础。
4rmr0与退火动力学行为指标之间的关系图(Ketcham et al.,1999
Fig.4The relationship between rmr0 and dynamic behavior index of annealing (Ketcham et al., 1999)
(a)—Cl浓度;(b)—Dpar;(c)—OH含量
(a) —Cl concentration; (b) —Dpar; (c) —OH content
4 裂变径迹年代学在矿床学中的应用
磷灰石裂变径迹部分退火带的温度较低(60~120℃),其在低温热年代学领域的应用占据主导地位(Fitzgerald et al.,1995杨静等,2023)。在矿床学研究中,尤其是低温热液矿床,其流体中成矿物质含量、成矿金属溶解度以及流体的运移均与热演化密切相关。因此,在恢复成矿体系的热活动历史、反映成矿期次、成矿时代以及矿化持续时间等研究中,裂变径迹年代学发挥着至关重要的作用(McInnes et al.,2005Márton et al.,2010武利民等,2021杨静等,2023)。此外,裂变径迹低温年代学还可以揭示矿体形成后的隆升和剥蚀情况,进一步评估矿床的保存潜力(冯丽霞等,2021Chen Jieyu et al.,2023)。
4.1 确定成矿时代及成矿期次
矿床形成可能经历了多个矿化事件或成因阶段(McInnes et al.,2005袁万明,2016),确定成矿时代,划分成矿期次一直是矿床学的重点研究内容,也是研究基础。当成矿热液温度高于磷灰石封闭温度,热液活动持续一定时间,且成矿深度可以为成矿后的快速冷却过程提供条件(黄勇等,2021),热液流体经过岩石会留下指示性径迹信息,确定热液矿床年龄的另一种思路就是确定热事件的时代(Arehart and Donelick,2006Huang Yong et al.,2019)。裂变径迹年代学可以揭示不同热事件的年龄,其中包含成矿热液活动的时代(图5),通过矿区样品与围岩样品裂变径迹定年数据对比,同时与其他放射性同位素定年手段相互验证,可以厘定不同矿床的不同矿化事件,揭示矿床的演化历史。
在白云鄂博东矿稀土矿床的矿石中,锆石与磷灰石的裂变径迹年龄得到了较为一致的结果,且与矿区板岩Rb-Sr等时线年龄基本一致(张峰等,1997),获得了可靠的热液成矿年龄。在新疆土屋-延东斑岩铜矿,通过锆石和磷灰石裂变径迹年龄数据和时间-温度(t-T)反演模型鉴定出3个矿化期,即289~276 Ma、232~200 Ma和165~158 Ma,表明印支西亚期和燕山期发生了矿化现象。此外,还判别出3期的构造热事件,分别发生在140~132 Ma、109~97 Ma和64 Ma,揭示了土屋-延东斑岩铜矿形成后经历的热历史(Yuan Wanming et al.,2007)。Chen Xuanhua et al.(2015)结合花岗岩中磷灰石的裂变径迹年代学和其他低温热年代学方法,恢复了巴尔喀什岩浆-热液型Mo-W金属成矿带三个典型矿床的热演化历史,揭示出矿床形成后隆升和剥露的过程。
5AFT数据的时间-温度反演模型恢复了育空金矿热历史(据Pinet et al.,2023
Fig.5Time-temperature inversion model of AFT data restores the thermal history of the Yukon gold deposit (after Pinet et al., 2023)
在中低温矿床中,磷灰石裂变径迹年代学对成矿时代的厘定起到关键作用。如,袁万明等(2001)通过磷灰石裂变径迹年代学约束了南梁金矿的两期矿化持续时间。此外,根据矿区内矿化或蚀变沉积岩中的磷灰石、锆石裂变径迹年龄数据,水银洞、太平洞、簸箕田、丫他、戈塘等金矿的成矿时代及后期叠加热事件的时间范围也得到限定(Huang Yong et al.,2019)。在对世界著名的美国内华达州北部卡林型金矿带的定年研究中,研究者不仅通过磷灰石裂变径迹年龄加权平均值确定了金成矿的时间为37.3±1.5 Ma,还根据区域内磷灰石裂变径迹年龄的变化趋势和重磁异常数据确定了成矿热液的中心位置(Chakurian et al.,2003)。
目前,磷灰石裂变径迹年代学在斑岩型铜矿、斑岩型铜金矿、造山型金矿、卡林型金矿、浅成低温热液型金矿、稀土矿床等热液矿床的成矿时代研究中得到了广泛应用(Yuan Wanming et al.,2007Zhang Rongwei et al.,2019Tian Pengfei et al.,2020;Liu Xueleng et al.,2021;Sun Min et al.,2021Wan Xiuquan and Sun Xiang,2021Leng Yaxing et al.,2022Chen Jieyu et al.,2023Lei Xianghe et al.,2023Pinet et al.,2023杨伟等,2023)。但目前只有极少数学者在MVT铅锌矿床中尝试过该方法(Arne et al.,1989Arne et al.,1990;李晓明等,2000),MVT铅锌矿属于低温热液矿床的一种,该类型矿床缺乏合适的定年矿物以及准确的放射性同位素年龄,其成矿时代的限定一直是亟待解决的关键科学问题。在MVT铅锌矿床中成矿流体的均一温度一般为90~250℃(Leach et al.,2001刘英超等,2008),高于磷灰石的封闭温度(60~120℃),若矿区内发育有成矿前的磷灰石,成矿热液可以对磷灰石中的裂变径迹进行一定程度的重置,从而记录矿区甚至区域内成矿热液活动的时间。但是,磷灰石裂变径迹获得的是热事件的年龄,属于间接成矿年龄,进一步结合成矿期其他矿石矿物、脉石矿物的放射性同位素定年结果,相互印证和限制,有望解决MVT铅锌矿床的成矿年龄问题。
4.2 约束热液矿床的矿化持续时间
热液矿床的矿化持续时间一直是较难厘清的问题。当成矿热液经过岩体,岩体的不同位置会接收到不同程度的热传导,热前缘进入围岩的距离是流体流动持续时间和岩石热扩散率的函数(Bickle and McKenzie,1987Elsworth,1989),如果能估计热液渗流通道范围内的岩石宽度,就可以计算热液流体活动的持续时间。热液流体穿过岩石留下的热传导信息表现之一,即磷灰石中保留的裂变径迹。磷灰石在加热过程中会发生径迹退火,退火的程度是加热持续时间和强度的非线性函数(Laslett et al.,1996Carlson et al.,1999Ketcham et al.,2007),受热传导程度不同的岩体内磷灰石裂变径迹会发生部分至完全不同程度的退火(黄勇等,2021)。
若系统地对不同岩体进行样品采集,对不同岩体内的磷灰石开展裂变径迹年代学分析和裂变径迹长度统计,通过计算机模拟,可以正演近似的热液持续时间(图6)(Hickey et al.,2014)。通过这一方法,美国Betze-Post卡林型金矿床主成矿期热液矿化的持续时间得以厘定(Hickey et al.,2014)。
4.3 矿床隆升与剥蚀定量化
矿床形成后往往会经历隆升、剥蚀等后期的变化和改造,研究矿床的隆升与剥蚀对于探求矿体的保存、变化规律以及圈定找矿靶区,寻找隐伏矿体具有重要的意义(Kesler and Wilkinson,2006王建平等,2008)。裂变径迹年代学可以提供矿床隆升与剥蚀速率、剥露厚度等定量化信息,具体包括矿物对法、年龄-高程法、年龄-封闭温度、热史模拟法(丁汝鑫等,2007常远和周祖翼,2010武利民等,2021),用以反演成矿系统的形成、隆升、剥蚀和保存过程(图7)。
采集不同高程的样品,开展磷灰石裂变径迹定年,对比区域构造事件,可以揭示不同期次的隆升-剥露时间,定量计算剥蚀量和速率。例如,我国内蒙古大青山的隆升-剥蚀受到区域构造活动的主导(冯丽霞等,2021)。磷灰石裂变径迹年代学数据揭示了胶东半岛郭城金矿带经历了108~74 Ma、74~27 Ma和27~0 Ma三个阶段的热演化,表层构造隆起事件的冷却过程是太平洋多阶段板块积聚的结果;进一步结合磷灰石裂变径迹数据的热历史模拟结果和胶东半岛已知的地温梯度,定量计算每个阶段的剥蚀率和剥蚀量(Chen Jieyu et al.,2023)。我国著名的金川铜镍矿床,其剥露程度较小,成矿深度远大于剥蚀厚度,矿区内隆升量大但剥露厚度浅的位置是有利的找矿靶区(Lei Xianghe et al.,2023)。矿区主要控矿断裂带内,在不同变形程度的岩石样品中磷灰石的裂变径迹年代学研究结果揭示了矿床的冷却温度和冷却时间,将量化的矿床剥露速率和总剥露量与已探明矿体深度进行对比,推断胶东夏甸金矿深部的找矿潜力(杨伟等,2023)。
6热液流体活动持续时间图解(据Hickey et al.,2014
Fig.6Diagram of the duration of hydrothermal fluid activity (after Hickey et al., 2014)
h—每个热流体事件持续时间;r—事件之间的重复间隔;脉冲热液活动的总持续时间由hr/h计算得出
h—the duration of each hydrothermal fluid event; r—the repetition interval between events; the total duration of the pulse hydrothermal activity is calculated from h and r/h
4.4 评价矿床保存与找矿潜力
明确矿床的保存情况可以更好地评估矿床深部找矿潜力,区域隆升和剥蚀条件是研究矿床保存变化规律的关键因素(王建平等,2008Gallagher,2012),根据裂变径迹年龄结果可以进行矿区演化热历史模拟,进一步得到矿床冷却事件时间、冷却速率、隆升-剥露量等重要信息(袁万明,2016;Wang Jianping et al.,2018),梳理不同时代、不同矿床形成-变化-保存的全过程(如图8),使综合评价矿床成矿潜力、预测不同矿区、不同矿段隐伏矿床的深度成为可能。
7安家营子金矿床低温热历史(a~c)及多阶段剥蚀历史定量化模型(d~g)(据Fu Lebing et al.,2020
Fig.7Low-temperature thermal history and multistage exhumation history quantitative model of the Anjiayingzi gold deposit (after Fu Lebing et al., 2020)
学者们针对不同类型矿床开展相关工作并获得有效数据,根据磷灰石裂变径迹年龄,恢复不同阶段热事件的演化热历史,确定吉林夹皮沟金矿经历的多阶段剥露时代以及平均剥蚀厚度、冷却速率,评价吉林夹皮沟金矿立山矿区保存状态良好,深部存在第二富集矿段或矿体潜力较大(冯云磊等,2015)。根据长英质侵入体中磷灰石裂变径迹的结果计算得到土屋斑岩铜矿两个阶段的剥露速率和总剥蚀厚度,结合区域气候、构造环境和其他年代学数据,揭示煤层的厚沉积和相对干旱的气候可以延长缓慢剥露时间,利于矿床的保存(Sun Min et al.,2021)。含矿岩体和围岩的磷灰石裂变径迹年代学研究,揭示含矿岩体快速冷却时间晚于围岩,差异性的剥露和冷却事件更好地保存了多宝山斑岩型铜钼矿床的矿体(Leng Yaxing et al.,2022)。石英斑岩的磷灰石裂变径迹年龄和平均径迹长度数据显示冈底斯帮布勒矽卡岩型铅锌铜矿床自形成以来一直处于剥露的状态,控矿断裂的下盘已经遭受严重破坏,断裂上盘的火山岩盖层附近是找矿的主要目标(张培烈等,2023)。
8卡特巴阿苏铜金矿床的剥露和保存历史模式图(据Sun Jingbo et al.,2023
Fig.8Schematic diagram showing the exhumation and preservation history of the Katebasu gold-copper deposit (after Sun Jingbo et al., 2023)
5 磷灰石裂变径迹年代学应用的限制因素
磷灰石裂变径迹年代学虽然在低温年代学领域应用广泛,但是目前此方法也受到一些因素限制:① 为了测试提高数据的可靠性,设置足够数量的对比样品和更高的采样密度,会增加时间和经济方面的成本(Donelick et al.,2005黄勇等,2021);② 目前磷灰石裂变径迹的数量多为人工在光学显微镜下进行统计(陈洁瑜等,2023Sun Jingbo et al.,2023杨静等,2023),具有不可避免的操作误差;③ 针对磷灰石退火动力学机理的研究还需继续深入,退火模型有继续完善优化的空间(Carlson et al.,1999沈传波等,2005);④ 不同实验室的实验条件、采用测量和校正方式存在差异(Miller et al.,1993田云涛等,2009)。针对这些问题,已经有很多的尝试来完善实验方法,比如,① 选择磷灰石裂变径迹年代学之前充分学习和调研,确保实验方法适合自己的研究区,在此基础上约束样品的数量,一定程度上可以降低实验成本;② 通过自动计数系统解决人工计数误差问题(Peternell et al,2009;Enkelmann et al,2012;Gleadow et al.,2019);③ 加强磷灰石退火动力学研究工作,不断探索限定退火行为的因素(Barbarand et al.,2003a;Ketcham et al,2007;Rana et al.,2021),以求建立更加全面和准确的退火模型;④ 呼吁国内外实验室之间开展合作实验,互相学习、交流实验测试经验(Barbarand et al.,2003b)。
6 结论及展望
(1)磷灰石凭借良好的结晶习性、优越的晶体光学性质,重要的微量元素含量,在岩石中普遍发育以及成熟的退火动力学属性等多种有利特征,成为裂变径迹年代学研究中的主导和优势矿物。
(2)磷灰石裂变径迹退火特性的研究有助于重现和模拟热历史,目前最成熟的退火动力学参数为Dpar和Cl含量(%),退火行为受温度、时间、磷灰石化学成分、径迹蚀刻条件、压力等多方面因素的影响,多元化的动力学参数是今后的研究方向,深入探索退火机理将有助于建立更加完善的退火动力学模型,提高热演化模拟的准确性和普适性。
(3)传统外探测器法和LA-ICP-MS方法是目前主流的裂变径迹年代学分析技术手段,电子探针分析、原子力显微镜和自动化计数系统与这两种方法的结合,提高了实验分析效率,减少了年龄数据的误差,高精度仪器相互结合开展实验也将是磷灰石裂变径迹年代学未来的发展趋势。
(4)磷灰石裂变径迹年代学是相对成熟和稳定的方法,更是矿床学领域一种有力的研究工具,主要表现在矿床成矿时代的厘定及成矿期次的划分、矿床成矿热液持续时间的约束、矿床隆升和剥露速率以及剥蚀厚度的定量、矿床保存和变化情况的评估以及矿区成矿潜力的预测等多个方面,有助于我们对矿床的形成过程和经历的热演化历史有更深层次的理解。
(5)不同实验室间实验条件、操作过程对比和规范会增强实验结果的可信度。磷灰石裂变径迹年代学与其他同位素定年方法相结合,相互印证、约束将有利于获取矿床更全面的地质信息,建立更完整的热历史过程。目前,微观和精细的分析技术也是磷灰石裂变径迹年代学发展的助推力。总之,磷灰石裂变径迹年代学在矿床学乃至在地质学领域具有广阔的发展前景和应用空间。
致谢:感谢博士研究生张义虎多次的交流与答疑,感谢两位审稿专家与编辑部老师对本文提出的宝贵意见!
1238U自发裂变产生矿物晶格损伤示意图(据Fleischer et al.,1965Gleadow et al.,2002田朋飞等,2020
Fig.1Schematic diagram of mineral lattice damage caused by 238U spontaneous fission (after Fleischer et al., 1965; Gleadow et al., 2002; Tian Pengfei et al., 2020)
2外探测器法原理及实验步骤示意图(据Gallagher et al.,1998
Fig.2Schematic diagram showing the principle and experimental procedure of external detector method (after Gallagher et al., 1998)
3LA-ICP-MS法裂变径迹计数位置示意图(据Gleadow et al.,2002Vermeesch,2017Cogné and Gallagher,2021
Fig.3Schematic diagram of fission track counting position by LA-ICP-MS (after Gleadow et al., 2002; Vermeesch, 2017; Cogné and Gallagher, 2021)
4rmr0与退火动力学行为指标之间的关系图(Ketcham et al.,1999
Fig.4The relationship between rmr0 and dynamic behavior index of annealing (Ketcham et al., 1999)
5AFT数据的时间-温度反演模型恢复了育空金矿热历史(据Pinet et al.,2023
Fig.5Time-temperature inversion model of AFT data restores the thermal history of the Yukon gold deposit (after Pinet et al., 2023)
6热液流体活动持续时间图解(据Hickey et al.,2014
Fig.6Diagram of the duration of hydrothermal fluid activity (after Hickey et al., 2014)
7安家营子金矿床低温热历史(a~c)及多阶段剥蚀历史定量化模型(d~g)(据Fu Lebing et al.,2020
Fig.7Low-temperature thermal history and multistage exhumation history quantitative model of the Anjiayingzi gold deposit (after Fu Lebing et al., 2020)
8卡特巴阿苏铜金矿床的剥露和保存历史模式图(据Sun Jingbo et al.,2023
Fig.8Schematic diagram showing the exhumation and preservation history of the Katebasu gold-copper deposit (after Sun Jingbo et al., 2023)
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