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作者简介:

曹淑云,女,1978年生。教授,博士生导师,长期从事大陆地壳构造-热演化及流变学研究。E-mail:shuyun.cao@cug.edu.cn。

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目录contents

    摘要

    岩石变形过程的精细厘定是构造地质学研究中的难点和重点。石墨是碳的同素异形体,摩擦实验研究表明,增加少量石墨化碳质物能够显著降低岩石的摩擦系数和力学强度,具有固体润滑剂的流变学意义。本研究针对红河-哀牢山剪切带新生代变形,开展了详细的野外观测和构造解析,针对不同变形-变质程度的天然含石墨岩石样品,利用光学显微镜、场发射扫描电子显微镜、电子背散射衍射(EBSD)、拉曼光谱方法,开展了详细的显微及亚显微变质与变形构造、矿物晶格优选定向、石墨拉曼地质温度计应用等深入分析。发现深变质岩中,石墨晶体常常与黑云母共生且定向拉伸或生长,呈现出晶质片状、条带状、膝折等变形构造特征;在强烈塑性变形的岩石中,石墨表现出塑性到超塑性流动构造特征;细粒化石墨富集形成微型滑移带/面,承载流变弱化的“干”润滑作用;在低级变质-弱变形岩石中,石墨有序度低,呈弥散状分布。EBSD组构显示石墨发育柱面<a>、菱面<a>到低温底面<a>晶格滑移系,对应的石墨拉曼地质温度范围为600~500℃、530~460℃、450~400℃。变形石墨的位错滑移系具有与石英位错滑移系类似的演化特征,具有成为变形温度计的潜力。

    Abstract

    Precise determination of rock deformation processes has important implications for to understanding the tectono-thermal evolution processes of deep to shallow crustal processes. This study focuses on graphite-bearing rocks that have different deformation and metamorphism in the Ailaoshan-Red River shear zone. It presents detailed deformation structural characteristics, mineral lattice preferred orientation (LPO), graphite Raman spectrum temperature by combined analysis of optical microscope (OM), scanning electron microscope (SEM) with electron back-scattering diffraction (EBSD), and Raman spectra. In the high-grade metamorphic and weakly deformed graphite bearing gneiss, graphite crystals show sheet and strip shapes as well as kink deformed structures. In the metamorphic and mylonitic schist and phyllite, the graphite aggregates show plastic to superplastic flow structural characteristics, and fine-grained graphite aggregate are enriched to form micro-slip zones or sliding planes, indicating “dry” lubrication of rheological weakening. In the low-grade metamorphic and weakly deformed carbonaceous slate, it shows low graphite order and dispersed distribution. EBSD LPO patterns show that graphite develops prism <a> (type-Ⅰ), rhombic <a> (types-Ⅱ and Ⅲ), to low-temperature basal <a> (type-Ⅳ) lattice slip systems, and the corresponding Raman geological temperature range of graphite is 600~500℃, 530~460℃, 450~400℃. It is proposed that the dislocation slip system of deformed graphite has the evolution characteristics similar to that of quartz and can be used as a deformation thermometer.

  • 岩石与矿物变形的物理-化学过程和热状态直接影响岩石流变学性质,然而,如何定量约束岩石与矿物的变形-变质行为及其演化过程是研究的重点和难点。因此,开展不同岩石与矿物微观变形-变质环境条件的研究,是理解大陆岩石圈流变学性质的金钥匙。石墨是碳的一种同素异形体,在地质构造作用过程中,随着温度升高变质程度增加,大量的非晶质碳质物转变为有序化的晶质结构即石墨(Beyssac and Rumble,2014)。石墨化过程中,晶格点阵有序化过程不可逆,其形成的晶体结构不受后期退变质作用的影响,因此,石墨化即碳质物质的晶形有序化程度可被用来测量岩石变质峰值而逐渐被地质学家关注(Wopenka and Pasteris,1993; Beyssac et al.,2002; Beyssac and Rumble,2014; Cao and Neubauer,2019)。

  • 含石墨或石墨化碳质物岩石常常出现在不同地壳深度的剪切带或断层带中,特别是在一些大地震的发震断裂带富集石墨晶体或碳质物(Oohashi et al.,2014; 刘江等,2016; Cao and Neubauer,2019)。同震摩擦实验研究表明,增加少量的石墨化碳质物能够显著降低岩石的摩擦系数和力学强度,有效起到流变弱化和“固体润滑剂作用”(O'Hara et al.,2006; 王萍等,2009; Togo et al.,2011; Oohashi et al.,201120132014; Kouketsu et al.,20142017; Kuo et al.,2018)。石墨具有明显的片状结构。对天然变形的含石墨岩石有限的研究发现,晶质鳞片状的石墨粗颗粒常常出现在非强烈的糜棱岩化岩石中,且石墨颗粒尺寸大小对晶质塑性变形起着重要的作用(Kretz,1996; Krabbendam et al.,2003; Nakamura et al.,2015; 吕美霞等,2019; Cao and Neubauer,2019; Lyu et al.,2020)。在强烈变形岩石中,具片状结构的石墨更容易将其原来的颗粒分层并切成非常小的薄片,最后在微剪切条带中重新定向,呈现出强烈的流动特征,致使变形更容易沿着狭窄的滑移面滑动(Moore and Lockner,2004; Cao and Neubauer,2019; Lyu et al.,2020)。

  • 之前,受技术手段的限制,对变形过程中石墨晶体的晶格优选定向(组构)的研究少见。近年来,通过电子背散射衍射(EBSD)的精细分析,报道了俯冲带(Puelles et al.,2014)和天然剪切带中含石墨岩石(吕美霞等,2019; Cao and Neubauer,2019; Lyu et al.,2020)中石墨变形行为和组构发育特征。其中,糜棱岩化过程中的石墨晶体具有明显的底面<a>滑移系发育,并揭示柱面{m}<a>滑移系存在的内涵(Lyu et al.,2020)。因此,应用石墨拉曼地质温度计可以定量岩石变质温度条件,并结合岩石及矿物的显微构造特征及组构特征等,综合限定岩石变形-变质环境研究又显得尤为重要。结合拉曼光谱分析,初步探讨了天然岩石中不同变形-变质条件下形成的含石墨岩石的宏观构造、矿物的微观变形-变质及变化对岩石流动行为的制约意义(吕美霞等,2019; Cao and Neubauer,2019; Lyu et al.,2020)。然而,由于天然岩石的非均质成分,其物理和化学过程更为复杂,对天然含石墨岩石及矿物的宏观和微观结构特征、变形矿物晶格优选定向型式和特性变化,以及它们之间成因联系,制约因素与地质过程的关联性研究,无论在国内还是国际上研究程度非常低,也因此制约了我们对地壳流变学性质的全面了解。

  • 本文重点聚焦滇西哀牢山-红河走滑剪切带内出露的不同变质-变形程度的含石墨岩石和矿物,通过显微镜观测、并结合石墨拉曼光谱和矿物EBSD晶格优选取向分析,详细阐述了变形的宏观-微观特征,限定了变形-变质作用条件,为定量厘定构造-热演化过程提供新思路,并探讨了其流变弱化意义。

  • 1 区域地质背景

  • 青藏高原东南缘三江地区(金沙江,澜沧江和怒江)在新生代时期经历了明显的构造挤压、地壳增厚、块体旋转及伸展过程,并发育一系列大型的近NW-SE向或NNW-SSE向剪切带及深变质杂岩(图1)。其中,红河-哀牢山左行走滑剪切带作为印支地块与华南地块的构造边界,在印度和欧亚板块碰撞及持续碰撞过程起着重要的协调作用(Tapponnier et al.,1990; Zhong et al.,1990; 钟大赉和丁林,1996)。沿着该剪切带自北往南分别发育有哀牢山、点苍山、雪龙山与大象山等深变质杂岩体,它们具有漫长的演化历史、复杂多样的物质组成。剪切带内不同深部层次、时代和类型的岩石经历不同的构造-热及流/熔体条件下的深部过程,并在后来的差异剥露于地表(Leloup et al.,1995; 刘俊来等,2006; 王二七等,2006; Cao et al.,2011a2011b2011c2013a2013b; 许志琴等,20122021; 王舫等,2013; Zhang et al.,20142017; 程雪梅等,2018; 陈宇等,2019; Wang et al.,2022; Li et al.,2022)。红河-哀牢山韧性剪切左行走滑剪切和高温塑性流变弱化主要出现在31~20 Ma(Leloup et al.,1995; 张进江等,2006; Searle,2006; Chung et al.,2008; Cao et al.,20072011a; Li et al.,2021); 在5~7 Ma发生了左行走滑向右行走滑的转换(Leloup and Kienast,1993; 万京林和李齐,1997; 李齐等,2000; 向宏发等,2006; Cao et al.,2011a)。

  • 哀牢山深变质杂岩主要由强烈的混合岩、整体可达角闪岩相、局部具有麻粒岩相特征的深变质岩石及不同时代的侵入岩构成。它们普遍遭受了新生代以来高温韧性左行剪切变形,呈现出不同塑性变形程度和塑性流动构造特征(Leloup et al.,1995; 刘俊来等,2006; Chen et al.,2015; 王浩博等,2019; Li et al.,2021; Wang et al.,2022)。糜棱面理和线理发育,其中面理倾角变化较大,北段和中段的倾角为近直立,南段较为平缓; 线理倾伏向主体为北西-南东,倾伏角以低角度近水平为主(图2)。深变质岩带的东西两侧为浅变质岩带,呈现绿片岩相—低绿片岩相变质作用。在变质杂岩带中发育有不同变质作用和剪切变形作用的含石墨或石墨化碳质物岩石(图2、图3)。

  • 2 研究方法

  • 2.1 扫描电子显微镜

  • 利用低真空场发射扫描电子显微镜(FI-SEM)进行详细的亚显微构造分析。其通过电子束扫描样品表面,获得样品信息的高分辨率微区形貌和结构特征,具有分辨率高、成像直观、几乎不损伤和污染原始样品等优点。本研究在中国地质大学(武汉)地学实验中心完成,仪器型号为Sigma300 VP,电子枪发射的电子束为30 keV(BSE),仪器的分辨率为2.5 nm。

  • 2.2 显微激光拉曼光谱

  • 拉曼光谱分析法的原理是拉曼散射效应,即对与入射光频率不同的散射光谱进行分析,从而得到分子转动、振动方面信息,并进一步应用于分子结构研究。显微激光拉曼光谱实验在中国地质大学(武汉)地质过程与矿产资源国家重点实验室完成,使用仪器为 Renishaw RM-1000型显微激光拉曼光谱仪,能量:1.2 mW,狭缝大小:25 μm,曝光时间:30 s,扫描区间:1000~1800 cm-1,使用氩离子激光器作为激发光源,激光波长:532 μm。利用Origin 8软件对拉曼数据进行荧光背景去除和多峰拟合操作。选取波长为1000~1800 cm-1的拉曼光谱数据,利用峰拟合分析方法将石墨的拉曼光谱进行分峰,得到与其结晶程度有关的每一个特征带的位置、面积、半高宽(FWHM)、高度等参数。利用这些参数,进行相关计算就可以知道其经历的变质峰值温度。

  • 图1 东南亚地区构造地质简图

  • Fig.1 Geological structural of Southeast Asia

  • (a)—印度-欧亚板块碰撞简图;(b)—青藏高原东南缘东南亚地区、红河-哀牢山走滑剪切带以及点苍山与哀牢山变质杂岩(据Tapponnier et al.,2001; Cao et al.,2011a

  • (a) —Diagram of India-Eurasia plate collision; (b) —Southeast Asia, the Ailaoshan-Red River strike slip shear zone, and the Diancangshan and Ailaoshan metamorphic complexes on the southeastern margin of the Qinghai Tibet Plateau (after Tapponnier et al., 2001; Cao et al., 2011a)

  • 图2 哀牢山-红河剪切带中哀牢山变质杂岩地质简图和剖面及产状特征

  • Fig.2 Geological sketch, profile, and occurrence characteristics of Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)—哀牢山变质杂岩地质简图(据1∶20万地质图);(b)—哀牢山变质杂岩中不同剖面的面理(S)、线理(L)产状特征;(c)—剖面:A—A’芒杏河-上新城乡,B—B’南沙-元阳,C—C’嘎洒-和平

  • (a) —Geological sketch of Ailaoshan metamorphic complex (modified from 1∶200000 geological map) ; (b) —occurrence characteristics of foliation (S) and lineation (L) in different sections of Ailaoshan metamorphic complex; (c) —profiles: A—A’: Mangxing River-Shangxin urban and rural areas, B—B’: Nansha-Yuanyang, C—C’: Gasa-Heping

  • 2.3 电子背散射衍射

  • 电子背散射衍射(Electron backscatter diffraction,EBSD),是利用不同晶体结构或方位的电子背散射衍射花样(EBSP)来测量晶体或矿物取向的显微构造分析手段。所有样品均沿着平行线理、垂直面理(即XZ面)的方向切制标准薄片。测试前首先需要对样品进行精细抛光。EBSD实验是在中国地质大学地球科学学院地学实验中心完成,探测器型号为Symmetry EBSD,仪器分辨率为0.1 μm,角度分辨率为0.1°。花样数据是在低真空、加速电压为20 kV条件下获取的。根据样品矿物粒度不同,选取不同步长(约2~10 μm),以面扫模式为主。结合使用 HKL CHANNEL 5和Matlab软件处理和分析数据,采用上半球等面积赤平投影。

  • 3 含石墨岩石的宏观和微观特征

  • 3.1 宏观变形和变质特征

  • 哀牢山变质杂岩普遍遭受了强烈的剪切变形改造,露头尺度上可观测到大量混合岩和片麻岩(图3a、b),其中混合岩中的暗色体和浅色体成条带状分布(图3a),片麻岩中的长英质脉形成透镜体状指示左行剪切变形(图3b)。

  • 含石墨岩石遭受了不同程度的变质和变形作用(图3c~h),根据含石墨岩石的不同变质与变形作用程度,将其划分为四种含石墨岩石类型:类型Ⅰ,中高级变质、弱变形的片麻岩,线理发育不明显; 类型Ⅱ,中高级变质、强变形的糜棱岩化片岩,糜棱线理和面理发育(图3c、d); 类型Ⅲ,低级变质、强变形的千糜岩为主(图3 e、f); 类型Ⅳ,低级变质、弱变形的板岩和石英脉(图3g、h)。类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ在剪切带中心部位为主,类型Ⅲ剪切带边部,类型Ⅳ靠近剪切带边缘的上盘(图2)。本研究重点选取了哀牢山三条典型剖面(芒杏河-上新城乡、南沙-元阳、嘎洒-和平)(图2)开展含石墨岩石的精细分析。类型Ⅰ主要以中高级变质和弱变形的含石墨片麻岩为代表,大多出露于剪切带核部,如南沙-元阳剖面(B—B’)中泥质片麻岩(样品:AL2017、AL0059、AL0061)。类型Ⅱ主要为中高级变质、强变形的糜棱岩化或超糜棱岩化片岩为代表,主要出露在剪切带核部和边部(图2,芒杏河-上新成乡剖面)。类型Ⅲ为低级变质、强变形的含石墨千枚岩、千糜岩为主,主要出露于哀牢山变质杂岩的南西侧剪切带边部靠近浅变质带中(图2,嘎洒-和平剖面)。类型Ⅳ为低级变质、弱变形碳质板岩,主要采集于剪切带北东侧上盘浅变质岩带中。

  • 3.2 显微构造特征

  • 类型Ⅰ含石墨片麻岩,其主要由长石、石英、黑云母、白云母、矽线石、石榴子石及石墨等矿物组成(图4)。石墨常常与黑云母共生(图4a~c),在显微反射光下呈金属棕色(图4b),结晶度高,颗粒较粗大,呈片状,长轴定向,呈弯曲、膝折状构造特征(图4c)。

  • 图3 哀牢山变质杂岩露头尺度构造变形特征

  • Fig.3 Outcrop scale structural characteristics of the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)—强烈的混合岩化作用;(b)—片麻岩长英质脉形成指示左行剪切;(c)—含石墨糜棱岩发育线理和面理;(d)—含石墨糜棱岩发育线理和面理;(e)—含石墨片岩线理和面理发育;(f)—含石墨片糜岩中的长英质脉指示运动学方向;(g)—含石墨碳质物石英脉;(h)—含石墨碳质物板岩

  • (a) —Strong migmatization; (b) —deformed gneiss felsic veins indicate sinistral shear sense; (c) —graphite bearing mylonite develops lineation and foliation; (d) —graphite bearing mylonite develops lineation and foliation; (e) —graphite bearing schist has developed lineation and foliation; (f) —felsic veins in graphite bearing schistose mylonite indicate kinematic direction; (g) —graphite containing carbonaceous quartz vein; (h) —graphite bearing carbonaceous slate

  • 图4 哀牢山变质杂岩中含石墨岩石显微尺度变形-变质作用特征

  • Fig.4 Characteristics of microscale deformation metamorphism of graphite bearing rocks in Ailaosham metamorphic complex

  • (a)~(c)—云母片麻岩(类型Ⅰ)中石墨和黑云母共生,石墨长轴定向,在单偏光下呈棕色,石墨呈膝折状构造;(d)~(e)—含石墨糜棱岩(类型Ⅱ)极其细粒的黑云母、石英、斜长石和石墨,条带状塑性流动构造,细粒的石墨集合体构成滑移面;(f)—含石墨糜棱岩(类型Ⅱ)中的石英多晶集合体及石墨集合体成分带性;(g)~(i)—低级变质的含石墨千糜岩(类型Ⅲ)发育应变局部化剪切条带,细粒的石墨集合体构成滑移面;(j)~(l)—含石墨碳质物板岩(类型Ⅳ)中的石墨弥散性分布

  • (a) ~ (c) —In the mica gneiss (type Ⅰ) , graphite and biotite coexist, oriented long axis of graphite with brown under single polarized light, and kinked graphite; (d) ~ (e) —in the graphite bearing mylonite (type Ⅱ) , it has banded plastic flow structure and extremely fine-grained mica, quartz, plagioclase and graphite, the fine-grained graphite aggregates form slipping planes; (f) —in the graphite bearing mylonite (type Ⅱ) , quartz aggregates and graphite aggregated form banded flow structure; (g) ~ (i) —low-grade metamorphosed graphite bearing mylonite (type Ⅲ) develops strain localized shear bands, and fine-grained graphite aggregates form slip planes; (j) ~ (l) —graphite dispersion distribution in graphite containing carbonaceous slate (type Ⅳ)

  • 类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化片岩主要由云母、长石、石英、石墨及不透明矿物组成。岩石整体呈现出典型的塑性到超塑性流动构造特征(图4d~f),其中拉长状或细粒化长石与细粒化石英颗粒集合体共同构成浅色条带,暗色矿物条带主要是由黑云母、石墨和一些不透明矿物构成。石英除在基质中以均匀分布的细粒化颗粒存在之外,还以石英矩型条带或变形石英脉的形式存在。云母和石墨主体呈极其细粒化分布在基质中。可见到细粒化的石墨集合体形成非透入性或透入性滑移面,滑移面近平行于矿物拉伸线理和面理。不透明矿物残斑与细粒化的云母、石墨等矿物共同构成σ型和δ型残斑及拖尾,指示左行剪切方向(图4d),与露头尺度上的左行剪切运动方向一致。

  • 类型Ⅲ含石墨千糜岩主要由云母/绢云母、长石、石英及石墨组成。其变形呈现出明显的域结构(劈理域和微劈石域),发育明显的微剪切条带,主要由极其细粒化的石墨、云母等构成。石墨化碳质物和黑云母集合体共同组成滑移面。发育S-C组构指示左行剪切方向(图4g~i)。

  • 类型Ⅳ含石墨化碳质板岩主要由石英、绢云母、石墨化碳质物组成。矿物颗粒很细,基本上没有明显的重结晶特征。其中的石墨碳质物结晶度低,弥散性状分布在岩石中,局部可见石墨碳质物集合体相互贯通形成不连续滑移面。石英颗粒轻微定向,无明显细粒化(图4j~l)。

  • 3.3 亚微构造特征

  • 类型Ⅰ含石墨黑云母片麻岩中的石墨多与云母共生,主要以片状或鳞片状的形式出现,颗粒粗大。部分石墨长轴定向、粒径150~300 μm(图5a)。石墨少见细粒化现象,可见弯曲状的膝折构造(图5b)。类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化含石墨片岩中的石墨呈鳞片状,其颗粒长轴为 2~50 μm,一些石墨呈矿物鱼状分布(图5c、d)。大部分石墨常常以多晶集合体构成滑移面,平行于矿物拉伸线理,大多数滑移面具有相似的滑移延伸方向(图5d)。类型Ⅲ含石墨千糜岩中的石墨和黑云母或者磁黄铁矿构成不连续—连续的滑移面和微剪切条带; 少量呈粒状、不定型的碳质物弥散在岩石中(图5e、f)。类型Ⅳ含石墨化碳质板岩中大部分碳质物颗粒以粒状、无定向性的、不指示滑动特性的微晶颗粒形式富集或充填在其他相对硬矿物(如石英、长石)的颗粒边界(图5g、h),少部分石墨碳质物集合体有连通的趋势,形成不连续的滑移面。可见小的粒状石墨化碳质物颗粒(<5 μm)以包裹体形式存在于石英颗粒、黑云母颗粒或微裂缝中。

  • 4 石墨拉曼光谱地质温度结果

  • 4.1 石墨拉曼光谱特征

  • 利用石墨拉曼光谱地质温度计计算了以上四种不同变形-变质程度的含石墨岩石中的石墨变质温度(图6)。石墨拉曼光谱谱图(1000~1800 cm-1)中,D1缺陷峰的标准位置为1350 cm-1附近,G峰的标准位置为1580 cm-1附近。随温度的升高,碳质物结晶程度(石墨化程度)逐渐增加,缺陷峰的高度(如D1带,代表无序碳的非晶质程度)逐渐减小,然后消失,并向结晶石墨标准位置(1580 cm-1)移动,即发育变窄变高的G峰(代表石墨有序结晶程度)及其右侧出现D2缺陷峰(Beyssac et al.,2014)。

  • 图5 哀牢山变质杂岩中含石墨岩石的扫描电镜(SEM)亚显微尺度变形特征

  • Fig.5 SEM microscale deformation characteristics of graphite-bearing rocks in the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)、(b)—云母片麻岩(类型Ⅰ)中石墨和黑云母共生,石墨长轴定向,石墨膝折状构造;(c)、(d)—含石墨糜棱岩(类型Ⅱ)细粒的石墨集合体构成滑移面;(e)、(f)—低级变质的含石墨千糜岩(类型Ⅲ)发育应变局部化剪切条带,细粒的石墨集合体构成滑移面;(g)、(h)—含石墨碳质物板岩(类型Ⅳ)中的石墨弥散性分布

  • (a) , (b) —Graphite and biotite coexist in mica gneiss (type Ⅰ) , graphite long axis orientation, graphite knee folded structure; (c) , (d) —graphite aggregates containing fine grains of graphite mylonite (type Ⅱ) form a slip surface; (e) , (f) —low-grade metamorphosed graphite bearing mylonite (type Ⅲ) develops strain localized shear bands, and fine-grained graphite aggregates form slip planes; (g) , (h) —graphite dispersion distribution in graphite containing carbonaceous slate (type Ⅳ)

  • 在石墨拉曼光谱谱图中,类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ中的D1峰和G峰的位置均在标准线附近,但是G峰明显比D1峰发育; 类型Ⅲ和类型Ⅳ的D1峰则在标准线两侧分布,G峰表现出向右增大偏移到1600 cm-1,出现G峰与D2峰合并。总体趋势,从类型Ⅰ至类型Ⅳ,D1峰变高; D2峰从与G峰分离到合并; G峰变宽变低,并偏离结晶石墨标准位置(1580 cm-1)的规律(图6)。

  • 4.2 石墨拉曼光谱地质温度计温度及拉曼参数特征

  • Rahl et al.(2005) 的拉曼经验公式得出的拉曼温度标准差普遍大于Beyssac et al.(2002) 的拉曼经验公式,因此本文样品主要利用Beyssac et al.(2002) 的经验公式进行拉曼地质温度计算(图6e)。为了减少因为矿物异质性带来的误差,大部分样品都进行了10次以上的重复测试,所得到的温度数据基本与G和D1缺陷峰的变化相一致。此外,为了充分测量并量化石墨化程度,我们计算了一系列可能与石墨拉曼温度计算相关的参数,如R1值(D1峰与G峰峰高比)、R2值(D1峰面积与全体峰(D1+D2+G)面积之比)、(D1/GArea值(D1峰与G峰峰面积比)、G峰位置以及G-FWHM(G峰半高宽)(图7)。

  • 类型Ⅰ含石墨片麻岩,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度约530℃,最高温度可达633℃,标准误差(SD)27.3~58.31℃之间。R1平均值在0.14~0.40之间,SD在0.07~0.15之间,与变质温度有较好的一致性。R2平均值在0.18~0.34之间,SD在0.06~0.13之间。G-FWMH在区域1的17~24之间(图7),G峰的位置普遍位于标准线(~1580 cm-1)两侧。 D1峰高明显低于G峰,且在较高温度下(>600℃)基本消失。

  • 类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化的含石墨片岩,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度约520℃,最高温630℃。R1平均值0.24~0.54,SD为0.03~0.25,R2平均值0.25~0.42,SD为0.03~0.14; G-FWHM大部分位于区域1,少部分偏离该区域向右G峰的位置,大多数位于标准线(~1580 cm-1)左右,少部分略微偏左; G峰高于D1峰,代表碳质物石墨化程度较高。

  • 类型Ⅲ含石墨千糜岩,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度400℃,最高温度441℃。R1平均值在0.85~1.42之间,SD为0.07~0.32,R2平均值0.54~0.63,SD为0.02~0.06; G-FWHM在区域 2的48~63之间,G峰的位置偏离标准线(~1580 cm-1)向右分布在1585~1620 cm-1之间的广泛区间; 可见D1峰高于G峰。

  • 类型Ⅳ含石墨碳质板岩,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度370℃,最高温度443℃,最低温度330℃; R1平均值0.77~1.62之间,SD为0.05~0.33,R2平均值0.55~0.65,SD为0.01~0.07; G-FWHM多位于区域 2,G峰的位置也多偏移到~1600 cm-1左右。

  • 图6 哀牢山变质杂岩石墨拉曼数据结果

  • Fig.6 Graphite Raman data results of the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)~(d)—类型Ⅰ到类型Ⅳ石墨拉曼温度频数分布图;(e)—四种类型拉曼光谱温度范围(据Beyssac et al.,2002的拉曼经验公式计算)

  • (a) ~ (d) —Raman temperature frequency distribution diagram; (e) —four types of Raman spectrum temperature ranges (after the empirical Raman formula of Beyssac et al., 2002)

  • 图7 哀牢山变质杂岩中四种含石墨岩石类型拉曼光谱温度范围(据Beyssac et al.,2002的拉曼经验公式)及G-FWGM比较

  • Fig.7 Comparison of Raman spectrum temperature ranges (after the Raman empirical formula of Beyssac et al., 2002) and G-FWGM from four types of graphite-bearing rocks in the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • 5 变形石墨和石英的EBSD晶格优选定向特征

  • 为了进一步探讨石墨变形作用条件,分别对四种类型岩石中的石墨和石英做了EBSD晶格优选定向分析。

  • 5.1 石墨组构特征

  • 类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ中的石墨颗粒都主要呈片状、长轴定向或细粒化条带中集合体,并表现出有序结晶的证据。其中,类型Ⅰ含石墨黑云母片麻岩中的石墨EBSD晶格优选定向结果显示两种类型,一种类型是在z轴方向附近形成两个明显的c-<0001>极密,即形成交叉环带组构类型(图8a)。{11¯20}和{10¯10}在xy面上形成小圆环带; 另外一种类型中的石墨在y轴附近形成c-{0001}极密,{11¯20}和{10¯10}在xz面上形成大圆环带(图8b)。

  • 类型Ⅱ糜棱片岩中的石墨主要在靠近y轴方向形成主要极密,在y-z轴之间形成次极密,{11¯20}和{10¯10}在xz面上形成弱的大圆环带(图8c、d)。

  • 类型Ⅲ千糜岩中的石墨在靠近z轴形成明显的c-{0001}极密,{11¯20和{10¯10}在xy面上形成宽的小圆环带(图8e、f)。

  • 类型Ⅳ板岩中的石墨在z轴附近形成c-{0001}弱极密或在zy面上形成微弱的小圆环带,{11¯20}和{10¯10}无明显极密特征(图8g、h)。

  • 5.2 石英组构特征及c轴张开角温度结果

  • 类型Ⅰ中的石英为多晶集合体,主要发育两种组构类型,一种是在yz轴之间形成c-<0001>小圆环带,表示菱面<a>滑移系发育(图9a)。另外一种石英在xz轴之间形成c-<0001>极密并在xy轴之间形成次极密,表现为柱面<a>叠加底面<a>滑移系(图9b)。

  • 类型Ⅱ中的石英主要形成细长的多晶聚集体,显示出以不规则或锯齿状晶界形式出现的重结晶的证据。石英c-<0001>形成交叉小圆环带,主要在y轴附近形成主要极密,主导的滑移系类型为柱面<a>滑移,同时石英还发育c-<0001>在xz面上的极密的底面<a>滑移。

  • 类型Ⅲ中的石英成细粒化集合体,石英c-<0001>在z轴方向附近发育明显的极密,主要以底面<a>滑移系为主(图9f)。类型Ⅲ中的石英极密相对均匀,在靠近z轴方向附近有弱的极密,体现出底面<a>滑移。

  • 为了进一步限定变形温度,利用石英c轴组构的张开角进行了温度计算。研究发现石英c轴组构的张开角(Opening-angle,OA)会随着变形温度的增加而增大(Law et al.,20042013; Law,2014)。Faleiros et al.(2016) 在分析了大量数据的基础上,对c轴组构张开角温度计进行了改良,在不考虑压力的影响时,OA-T的关系表示为下面两个公式(温度范围为250~1050℃,压力范围为250~1500 MPa):

  • 图8 哀牢山变质杂岩四种含石墨岩石类型代表性石墨EBSD晶格优选定向特征

  • Fig.8 Characteristics of four-types graphite-bearing rocks from the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)、(b)—类型Ⅰ云母片麻岩中的石墨晶格优选定向;(c)、(d)—类型Ⅱ糜棱化片岩中的石墨晶格优选定向;(e)、(f)—类型Ⅲ片糜岩中的石墨晶格优选定向;(g)、(h)—类型Ⅳ弱变形板岩中的石墨晶格优选定向

  • (a) , (b) —Type Ⅰ mica gneiss; (c) , (d) —type Ⅱ mylonitized schist; (e) , (f) —type Ⅲ schistose mylonite; (g) , (h) —type Ⅳ weakly deformed slate

  • T=6.90A+48250CT650C, OA87

  • T=4.6OA+258650CT1050C, OA87

  • 类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ具有从90°~45°之间的OA角,通过上述公式计算获得的温度范围为400~620℃之间,其变形温度与石墨的变质峰温区间大致相同。

  • 6 讨论

  • 6.1 石墨化程度与拉曼参数变化

  • 石墨晶体有序化程度与温度有直接的成因关联(Beyssac and Rumble,2014),因此利用石墨拉曼参数,如拉曼参数R2、R1、G峰位置、(D1/GAreaG-FWHM等(图10)可间接约束变形或变质作用演化特征。

  • 本文分析样品中的G-FWHM参数以400℃左右为界,可划分为区域1(数值在17~24,T >400℃)和区域2(数值在48~53,T <400℃)(图7)。大部分样品的G-FWHM都在这两个区域内,其中区域1主要为片麻岩和糜棱岩化片岩(类型Ⅰ和Ⅱ),区域2主要为千糜岩和板岩(类型Ⅲ和Ⅳ)。但类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化含石墨片岩和类型Ⅲ中的石墨G-FWHM整体有右侧分布趋势,其可能与剪切作用或糜棱岩化作用相关,其变化对剪切作用具有指示意义。

  • 一般认为,石墨拉曼R1值变化较大,最高可达3.5,而R2变化不大,其值在0.6~0.8之间(Henry et al.,2019)。在我们分析的样品中,类型Ⅰ片麻岩中的R1为0.14~0.40,R2平均值在0.18~0.34之间; 类型Ⅱ糜棱岩中的R1值为0.24~0.54,R2为0.25~0.42。类型Ⅰ与类型Ⅱ中的R1和R2相比,其值略微偏低,表明类型Ⅰ中的石墨化碳质物的成熟度略微高于类型Ⅱ。类型Ⅲ中的R1为0.85~1.42,R2为0.54~0.63; 类型Ⅳ中的R1为0.77~1.62,R2为0.55~0.65,因此,类型Ⅲ中的R1和R2值的范围相近。相对类型Ⅲ和类型Ⅳ,类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ中石墨的R2最高和最低值相差相对较大,可能表明类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ非均质变质和变形作用。因此,在我们分析的样品中,从类型Ⅳ至类型Ⅰ,总体表现出随着碳质物结晶(石墨化)程度的增加,R1值呈非线性降低趋势。

  • 图9 哀牢山变质杂岩四种含石墨岩石类型石英EBSD组构发育特征

  • Fig.9 EBSD fabric development characteristics of quartz in four types of graphite-bearing rocks from the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)、(b)—类型Ⅰ云母片麻岩中的石英组构;(c)、(d)—类型Ⅱ糜棱化片岩中的石英组构;(e)—类型Ⅲ片糜岩中的石英组构;(f)—类型Ⅳ弱变形板岩中的石英组构

  • (a) , (b) —Mica gneiss of type Ⅰ; (c) , (d) —mylonitized schist of type Ⅱ; (e) —type Ⅲ schistose mylonite; (f) —type Ⅳ weakly deformed slate

  • 石墨拉曼(D1/GArea也是最常用来估计摩擦加热的参数,在变质作用阶段,(D1/GArea会随着碳质物成熟度增加而降低(Kouketsu et al.,2014),然而,(D1/GArea值在低于300℃时保持相对恒定(Hirono et al.,2015; Kaneki et al.,2016; Mukoyoshi et al.,2018)。有研究认为,断层摩擦加热可快速地导致碳质物成熟化和高应变剪切变形(Nakamura et al.,2015; Kaneki et al.,2016)。研究区含石墨岩石温度(D1/GArea的比值与变质温度尽管呈现出明显的强非线性相关性。但是其中类型Ⅱ-糜棱岩化片岩中石墨的(D1/GArea值(T >450℃,(D1/GArea<0.9,)小于前人摩擦实验中的值(T>400℃时,(D1/GArea>1.5),又比其他未变形片岩中类型Ⅳ石墨的(D1/GArea值相对偏大,表明该样品中的碳质物经过了较高程度变质作用改造,后又受糜棱岩化过程的快速摩擦加热影响。类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化片岩样品中的石墨(D1/GArea略微偏离非线性相关区并向右增大的趋势,即可能会造成R2的高估,即剪切作用可能导致石墨拉曼温度的低估。

  • 此外,G峰的位置与碳质物石墨化程度相关,G峰的位置主要表现为在标准线(~1580 cm-1)附近和偏离标准线向右延伸至~1605 cm-1的两种类型。其中类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化片岩中石墨的G峰的位置位于标准线右侧,与研究认为G峰的位置随应变的增大而向大波数方向移动相一致(Kuo et al.,2018)。本研究中的D3缺陷峰(~1500 cm-1)在低于400℃时出现。随着碳质物石墨化增加过程中,G峰峰高度逐渐从低于D1缺陷峰演变成高于D1缺陷峰,到只存在G峰,代表了石墨结晶温度从低级变质到中高级变质的转变。

  • 6.2 变质-变形温度限定

  • 通过对四种不同变形程度含石墨岩石中的石英和石墨进行EBSD组构分析,揭示出类型Ⅰ到类型Ⅳ中的石英EBSD晶格优选取向呈现出从高温柱面<a>、菱面<a>到低温底面<a>滑移系类型的转变。有研究认为,面<c>滑移发育温度范围为T>~550℃,柱面<a>和柱面<a>滑移发育的温度范围为T>~450℃或400℃,底面<a>滑移发育的温度范围为T>~300℃(Stipp et al.,2002)。

  • 类型Ⅰ云母片麻岩中的石墨颗粒粗大,有一定长轴定向,结晶有序度高,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度约530℃,最高温度可达630℃。类型Ⅱ糜棱岩化的片岩中的石墨多以细粒化集合体出现,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度约520℃,最高温度约630℃。石英多晶集合体呈现出转<a>滑移系指示的变形温度与石墨拉曼光谱变质温度相一致,与类型Ⅰ的变形条件具有相似性,类型Ⅱ中的石墨主要在靠近y轴方向形成c-{0001}主要极密。获得的石墨拉曼地质平均温度与区域哀牢山杂岩所经历大规模左行韧性剪切作用在低角闪岩相条件下(580~670℃)范围一致(Leloup et al.,19931995; Gilley et al.,2003; Cao et al.,2010)。值得注意的是无论类型Ⅰ还是类型Ⅱ中的石英或多或少地呈现出柱面<a>叠加菱面<a>和底面<a>滑移系发育情况,而石墨主要是靠近y轴方向形成c-{0001}主要极密。这可能由于碳质物石墨化过程不受后期退变质作用影响,而石英滑移系发育对温度环境变化比较敏感,如区域深变质杂岩剥露低温叠加过程,所以仅可见变形石英呈现出较为复杂的叠加滑移系。

  • 图10 哀牢山变质杂岩四种含石墨岩石中石墨拉曼参数变化

  • Fig.10 Changes of Raman parameters of graphite-bearing rocks from the Ailaoshan metamorphic complex

  • (a)—温度与(D1/GArea;(b)—温度与G-Position(G峰位置);(c)—温度与R1

  • (a) —Temperature and (D1/G) Area; (b) —temperature and G-Position; (c) —temperature and R1

  • 类型Ⅲ以低级变质、但变形作用较为明显的板岩为主,石墨以细粒化的集合体或条带出现,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度约400℃,最高温度约440℃。其中,微剪切带中的石英和石墨都呈现出强烈的细粒化,石英发育明显的底面<a>滑移系类型,变形石英低温底面<a>滑移系的叠加与石墨化碳质物随变质温度升高的结晶的低温条件相匹配。石墨主要在靠近z轴方向形成c-{0001}主极密。类型Ⅳ含石墨碳质板岩中的石墨弥散性出现,获得石墨拉曼地质平均温度370℃,最高温度443℃,最低温度330℃。石英发育弱的底面<a>滑移,与低温、弱变形的显微构造特征相符,代表了一种低温弱变形条件。石墨主要在靠近z轴方向形成弱c-{0001}极密。研究样品总共的石墨拉曼光谱地质温度计结果(类型Ⅰ-630℃至类型Ⅳ-330℃),与石英滑移系类型和c轴组构张开角指示的变形温度(总体温度范围在710~360℃),具有一致性。由此可见,石墨具有相对稳定的热化学性质(在200~1000℃之间稳定变化并赋存),石墨碳质物的成熟度对于建立地质事件的构造-热演化历史具有重要意义。

  • 6.3 天然变形石墨对地壳流变学性质的贡献意义

  • 摩擦实验研究表明,在大范围的滑移速率下,石墨保持极低的摩擦系数(约0.1~0.2),表明石墨对岩石的流变弱化作用不依赖于滑移速率(Oohashi et al.,2011; Rutter et al.,2013; Kuo et al.,2014; Furuichi et al.,2015; Kouketsu et al.,2017)。在实验过程中,增加少量石墨碳质物,能够显著影响摩擦性能,有效降低岩石强度,促进塑性变形,起到固体润滑剂作用(Oohashi et al.,2013)。也有研究表明,石墨化碳质物与其他流变弱相矿物存在可以用来解释无震滑动(Holdsworth,2004; Collettini et al.,2009)。研究区中的四种不同变形和变质程度的含石墨岩石,其中,在非强烈糜棱岩化的类型Ⅰ中,石墨呈粗颗粒和呈长条纹状晶体形态出现,而在类型Ⅱ糜棱岩中出现的是极其细小的石墨颗粒集合体。在强烈的高温塑性变形岩石中,石墨矿物颗粒变得越来越小,最后在微剪切条带中重新定向。石墨集合体沿着糜棱面理定向排列和富集并发育滑移面和微剪切条带(类型2岩石,石墨含量较高>20%(体积百分比)),或在受剪切作用影响的低级变质含石墨片岩中近平行于片理的滑移面(类型Ⅲ)上滑动。岩石中形成的石墨,具有极其小的静电分离能(Moore and Lockner,2004)和片状结构,使其更容易将原来的颗粒分层并切成非常小的薄片,然后沿着狭窄的滑移面排列。早期,Wilson(1961) 在对合成石墨的蠕变实验研究中提出,在蠕变流动面和方向上,石墨的变形取决于易滑动底面结构的方向,即当石墨易滑动底面平行于蠕变流动面或细粒化叶理方向时,通常会产生较大的变形。有研究认为,含石墨断层岩成分主要由碎裂的石英、长石、少量黏土矿物和约2%~12%(体积百分比)左右的石墨组成的,其中虽然石墨含量很少,如在足够的剪切应力作用下,石墨能够在滑移面上富集并形成应变局部化滑移带,导致应变弱化(Niemeijer et al.,2011; Rutter et al.,2013; Oohashi et al.,2013; Smeraglia et al.,2017)。

  • 石墨晶格优选和滑移系的发育,也是岩石流变弱化与应变局部化的一种潜在机制(Hansen et al.,2016; Cao et al.,2016)。类型Ⅰ和类型Ⅱ岩石中的石墨晶体分别发育有柱面<a>滑移系,类型Ⅲ糜棱岩中细粒化石墨集合体条带呈现出明显的底面<a>滑移。对石墨的柱面<a>滑移出现似乎不符合已知的石墨晶内滑移系或其预期的力学行为,尽管有研究认为,柱面<a>滑移系受流动面控制,其石墨晶体颗粒相对粗大且以薄层形式存在,即归因于宏观流动平面或因为平行于与叶理方向呈高角度的矿物颗粒边界(Puelles et al.,2014)。在本研究样品以及本研究团队早期研究中(吕美霞等,2019; Lyu et al.,2020),类型Ⅰ中的石墨发育柱面<a>滑移系,其石墨晶体呈片状并受与叶理方向大角度相交的矿物颗粒边界影响,但是在类型Ⅱ和类型Ⅲ糜棱岩化的岩石中,强烈的细粒化的石墨集合体,平行于矿物拉伸线理方向,石墨EBSD晶格优选结果同样呈现出强烈的菱面<a>、柱面<a>以及底面<a>滑移系变化,且这种现象在不同的样本中重复出现,因此,并不是EBSD数据误差所致。在糜棱面理或微剪切条带或应力局部化带,石墨发育非常明显的晶格优选取向极密。颗粒尺寸大小和石墨滑移系的发育与长石、石英等矿物共同对岩石整体的晶质塑性变形起着重要的流变弱化作用。同时,结合拉曼温度的结果,我们认为糜棱岩化石墨的晶格优选取向和滑移系的变化受控于应力和温度变化,提出变形石墨的位错滑移系具有与石英位错滑移系类似的演化特征,可定量约束变形温度。

  • 7 结论

  • (1)红河-哀牢山剪切带中发育有四种不同变形和变质程度的含石墨岩石类型:类型Ⅰ为中高级变质与弱变形; 类型Ⅱ为中高级变质与强烈的韧性变形,流动构造特征; 类型Ⅲ为低级变质与韧性变形,以微剪切条带为主; 类型Ⅳ为低级变质与弱变形。从类型Ⅰ到类型Ⅳ石墨从明显的有序晶质鳞片状结构,到细粒化集合体构成滑移面,以及均匀弥散在弱变形—未变形碳质岩中。

  • (2)获得变质石墨拉曼温度结果,其中类型Ⅰ:432~633℃; 类型Ⅱ:388~557℃,类型Ⅲ和类型Ⅳ:330~440℃。石墨化过程中,G峰峰高度逐渐从低于D1缺陷峰变成高于D1缺陷峰,到只存在G峰,代表了石墨结晶温度从低级变质到中高级变质的转变。

  • (3)类型Ⅰ至类型Ⅳ,变形石墨EBSD组构显示出从柱面<a>、菱面<a>到低温底面<a>滑移系类型的转变。该变化与石英从高温到低温变形过程中发育的滑移系类型有相似性。因此,含石墨岩石的变质温度与区域变形温度具有一致性,即左行剪切变形温度主要集中在450~630℃,叠加低级变质与变形温度集中在300~400℃之间。

  • (4)石墨作为一种流变性非常强的低摩擦强度矿物,其颗粒粒度变化和滑移系的发育,对地壳不同深度层次的塑性和脆性变形过程起着重要的流变弱化作用。

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