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作者简介:

邓宾,男,1980年生。博士,教授,地质资源与地质工程专业,主要从事含油气盆地分析研究工作。E-mail:dengbin13@mail.cdut.edu.cn。

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目录contents

    摘要

    褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统普遍存在浅表构造剥蚀-沉积作用及其相关耦合机制,从而具有复杂的三维空间构造变形特征与演化过程。本文基于青藏高原东缘龙门山褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统,通过沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模拟实验和野外地质调查等研究,揭示其沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用,导致了褶皱冲断带大规模抬升剥蚀、断层多期活化与无序变形;断层与冲起构造沿走向合并生长、形成斜向断层;尤其是冲断带三维空间上差异性抬升剥蚀,常常形成与构造剥蚀作用相关的反转构造。剥蚀作用越强、断层翻转越明显(形成视正断层)。龙门山褶皱冲断带广泛出露的拉张构造变形样式,可能受控于晚中生代—新生代沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用过程。上述沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用,可能导致川西南前陆盆地系统中低角度断层多期活化与无序冲断变形。研究表明,晚三叠世以来的构造缩短与浅表作用,对青藏高原东缘龙门山独特地貌构造特征具有重要的控制作用。

    Abstract

    Tectonic-erosion-sedimentation interaction and their coupled relationships control the evolution of fold-and-thrust belts and foreland basin systems at different time and space scales. In this study, we use analog experiments to investigate the influence of erosion and sedimentation of fold-and-thrust belt, in particular, the along-strike change of erosion-sedimentation in the Longmenshan fold-and-thrust belt. The along-strike change of surface processes results in a strong erosion in wedge hinterland, reactivation of faults and out-of-sequence thrusting, some of faults join together along strike to form lateral faults (or transfer faults). Furthermore, along-strike change of erosion accommodates overturning of faults, even normal ones, in the wedge hinterland. Stronger the erosion, bigger the change for the faults in the hinterland. Extensional deformation is found across the Longmenshan fold-and-thrust belt, which could be accounted by the along-strike change of erosion that occurred in the Cretaceous to Cenozoic time. In particular, the along-strike change of erosion induces reactivation of low-angle faults, and out-of-sequence thrusting in the southwestern Sichuan basin. Thus, we argue that the tectonic shortening and surface processes have had a significant influence on the architecture of the Longmenshan.

  • 褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统(本文简称盆-山系统)形成演化过程中,普遍发生褶皱冲断与抬升剥蚀作用,从而导致地壳非均一性缩短增厚和构造挤出等,大规模剥蚀/剥露作用促使褶皱冲断带穹隆构造和韧性剪切带等抬升剥露至地表(Beaumont et al.,2001; Willet et al.,2002; 王二七等,2009)。需要指出的是,大型(韧性剪切)拉张构造普遍发育于世界上的造山带或褶皱冲断带,Ratschbacher et al.(1989) 强调受控于差异能干性块体构造挤出、板块底垫作用等,导致经典拉张构造普遍发育于挤压板块动力学背景下褶皱冲断带或造山带; Beaumont et al.(2001) 将高喜马拉雅地区强剥露机制用以解释藏南拆离断层系和下地壳“通道流“等形成演化过程,将其引入褶皱冲断带构造挤出等张性构造研究,而被广泛采用和关注。褶皱冲断带深部物质(如:结晶基底或变质带等)剥露地表过程普遍伴随浅部层系构造剥蚀作用和/或深部层系垂向或侧向构造挤出等过程,尤其强构造剥蚀作用可以导致浅部地表20 km层系被剥蚀而出露深部基底物质,致使褶皱冲断带通常呈现出差异性剥蚀过程和构造变形或挤出样式。

  • 青藏高原东缘印支期和喜马拉雅期龙门山冲断带SE向逆冲推覆于四川盆地西缘,川西地区分别形成晚三叠世—早侏罗世和晚白垩世—新生代(以龙门山中南段为主的)再生前陆盆地复合结构(刘和甫等,1994; Liu Shugen et al.,2013); 印支期以来的差异性抬升剥蚀作用,同时导致龙门山冲断带-川西前陆盆地系统走向上差异性前陆盆地沉积建造和结构特征(Deng Bin et al.,2012; Yan Danping et al.,2018; Lu Renqi et al.,2019; Tan Xibin et al.,2019),如:地貌结构、地层展布和出露、断层结构等。龙门山褶皱冲断带平均海拔3000~4000 m(最高峰约5000 m),SE向约30 km范围内减少至川西前陆盆地~500 m海拔,形成了青藏高原周缘乃至世界上地形梯度最大的盆山过渡带(图1),使其成为解译青藏高原东向扩展生长的关键地区(Clark et al.,2000; Hubbard et al.,2009; Wang Erqi et al.,2012; Liu Yiduo et al.,2020),现存多种模式如:“鳄鱼嘴式”楔入构造模式(蔡学林等,1999; Wang Xu et al.,2018),逆冲-走滑机制(Tapponnier et al.,2001)和下地壳流动模式(Royden et al.,1997; Clark et al.,2000)等,用以解释青藏高原东向生长过程与龙门山-锦屏山独特的地貌构造。虽然如此,龙门山冲断带仍然存在难以解释的典型地质特征,如:有限地壳缩短和构造负载型前陆盆地、(局部)拉张韧性剪切带(或穹隆构造)与地壳增厚缩短、冲断剥蚀与下地壳“通道流”构造挤出等(Zhang Peizhen et al.,2004; Burchfiel et al.,2008; Hubbard et al.,2009)。

  • 因此,本文以龙门山地区冲断剥蚀作用为研究目标,开展沿走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模拟实验,结合现今区域地质与构造变形特征等,论述龙门山褶皱冲断带沿走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积作用对其构造-沉积建造过程的控制影响作用,进一步探讨青藏高原东缘高原东向扩展生长过程及其盆-山系统建造特征,为青藏高原东缘地区的研究提供基础证据。

  • 1 差异性冲断剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模型

  • 1.1 龙门山冲断带-川西前陆盆地系统走向差异性剥蚀-沉积作用特征

  • 晚三叠世—早侏罗世松潘-甘孜褶皱带南向逆冲推覆于扬子板块西缘,强挤压变形作用过程导致形成龙门山冲断带发育茂汶-汶川韧性剪切带、北川-映秀断裂带和安县-灌县断裂,且龙门山冲断剥蚀过程导致川西前陆盆地形成1~2 km厚楔状磨拉石沉积,如:上三叠统须家河组和下侏罗统白田坝组,尤其是大量灰质、石英质同造山期砾岩揭示出龙门山冲断带大规模早期剥蚀去顶作用(崔秉荃等,1991; Deng Bin et al.,2012; Yan Danping et al.,2018)。晚白垩世—新生代受控于青藏高原东向扩展挤出过程,龙门山冲断带发生晚期活化与冲断变形作用,龙门山冲断带中南段发生大规模新生代抬升剥蚀作用(Wang Erqi et al.,2012; Li Zhiwu et al.,2012; Tian Yuntao et al.,2013; Tan Xibin et al.,2019),导致前寒武基底剥蚀去顶,如:彭灌和宝兴杂岩体等,揭示出龙门山中南段明显较强的抬升剥蚀作用过程,而明显区别于龙门山北段新生代较弱的抬升剥蚀作用(Li et al.,2012; Tan et al.,2019),体现出沿走向上差异性抬升剥蚀作用。川西前陆盆地中南段受控于龙门山挤压冲断相关的挠曲负载作用形成晚白垩世—新生代再生前陆盆地,它发育于晚三叠世前陆盆地之上形成区域性不整合界面(即上白垩统夹关组之间与下覆层系间不整合面)。川西前陆地区中南段形成约1~2 km厚度的同构造磨拉石沉积建造,上白垩统夹关组-灌口组、新生代名山群等楔状体砾岩周期性沉积,它们与龙门山冲断带剥蚀去顶密切相关(李元林等,1993; 苟宗海,2001),体现出新生代沿走向上差异性同构造沉积作用。总体上,受控于龙门山冲断带沿走向差异性剥蚀-沉积作用,晚白垩世—新生代龙门山冲断带挤压冲断与剥蚀去顶作用主要发育于龙门山中南段,因而导致其冲断带中南段剥蚀作用显著大于冲断带北段,即南段前寒武结晶基底剥蚀出露、北段为下古生界剥蚀出露,且新生代再生前陆盆地沉积建造主要发育于川西坳陷南段。

  • 1.2 走向变化冲断剥蚀-沉积作用均值砂箱物理模型设置

  • 物理模型以龙门山冲断带-川西前陆盆地系统为目标模型,模型分为三个区域:构造剥蚀-沉积区域、构造剥蚀区和无剥蚀-沉积区(图2)。构造剥蚀-沉积区伴随挤压缩短变形过程,发生典型的冲断带剥蚀与前陆盆地构造沉积作用; 构造剥蚀区伴随挤压缩短变形过程,仅发生剥蚀作用,前陆盆地区无构造沉积作用,二者之间对于揭示出沿冲断带-前陆盆地走向上与龙门山中南段和北段同构造沉积差异性相似(即龙门山中南段发育新生代再生前陆盆地)。无剥蚀-沉积区域,仅发生构造挤压缩短变形过程,从而与前述两个区域对比构造变形差异性。

  • 砂箱物理模拟装置为成都理工大学“油气藏地质及开发工程”国家重点实验室构造物理模拟综合实验平台,恒定挤压缩短速率为0.001 mm/s,以代表龙门山褶皱冲断带-川西前陆盆地系统中变形速率约1~3 km/Ma(Deng Bin et al.,20182020),实验过程中缩短量和缩短率分别为300 mm和38%,与现今龙门山冲断带约30%~45%缩短量相似(林茂炳等,1996; 范增辉等,2018)。实验室砂箱物质为均值石英砂,粒径为0.2~0.4 mm,内摩擦角为29°~31°,内摩擦系数为0.55~0.58,被广泛地应用于岩石圈浅表脆性变形过程模拟研究(Lohrmann et al.,2003; Deng Bin et al.,2018)。本次物理实验模型初始铺设长、宽、高为800 mm×340 mm×35 mm(垂向上间隔10 mm铺设彩色石英砂标志层,砂箱物质表面用10 mm直径彩色圆代表应变椭球体,底部约1~2 mm玻璃珠使模型基底摩擦属性统一)。实验过程中,伴随挤压缩短楔形体进入稳态生长阶段过程后,等厚度剥蚀楔形体顶部物质(或沉积于楔形体前缘),通过定速拍照记录、并用绘图软件测量楔形体楔高(即活动挡板后缘基底至楔顶的高度)和楔长(即活动挡板后缘至楔形体前缘第一条断层点的距离)等几何学参数; 实验结束后,通过对砂体淋水固结、等20 mm间距连续切片观察砂箱内部变形特征,并结合3D MOVE对其进行三维模型及其断层结构进行建模,揭示最终构造变形特征。

  • 图1 青藏高原东缘龙门山冲断带-前陆盆地区域地质特征简图

  • Fig.1 Topography from SRTM digital elevation model and geological setting of the Longmenshan on the eastern Tibetan Plateau

  • 2 模拟实验过程与结果

  • 2.1 构造演化特征

  • 伴随挤压缩短过程,砂箱物质持续发生前陆向断层扩展冲断,至缩短量为13%时依次形成T1~T5前陆向断层(图3),楔形体高度和长度快速增长到70 mm和120 mm(图4)。随后在砂箱右侧进行第一次走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积模拟(图3c),楔形体后缘楔顶区(Ⅱ~Ⅲ区)剥蚀约10 mm,楔高减小至60 mm。随后挤压缩短过程中,楔形体楔高逐渐增加、楔长逐渐较小,至缩短量为15%时依次形成T6前陆向断层,楔高和楔长分别增长到70~80 mm和260 mm。需要指出的是,Ⅱ~Ⅲ区楔高(70 mm)和Ⅰ区-无剥蚀-无沉积作用区(80 mm)具有明显的差别。随后进行第二次走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积模拟(图3e),Ⅱ~Ⅲ区楔顶高度剥蚀10 mm、减小至60 mm,由于Ⅲ区楔形体前缘发生沉积作用导致其楔长增加至300 mm。随后挤压缩短变形过程中,Ⅰ~Ⅲ区总体上具有相似的楔高增高、楔长减小的趋势。当25%缩短量时,楔形体前缘T6断层持续活动,且走向变化形成前缘斜向断层,与其后端T5断层合并,发生前陆向扩展变形冲断作用。此时,Ⅰ~Ⅱ区楔形体物质前缘断层T6为活动变形断层,而Ⅲ区楔形体物质前缘T5~T6断层为活动断层,沿冲断带前缘断层活动的走向变化性,即构造剥蚀-沉积作用导致其前缘断层冲断变形时间较长。持续缩短至缩短量为31%时,楔形体前缘形成新生的T7前陆向断层,构造剥蚀-沉积区域前缘断层仍然保持着冲断变形活动特征,如:Ⅲ区楔形体T5~T6断层(图3g)。至缩短量为31%时,Ⅰ区楔高和楔长逐渐生长至90 mm、300 mm,Ⅱ区楔高和楔长逐渐生长至80 mm、300 mm,Ⅲ区楔高和楔长逐渐生长至80 mm、300 mm。

  • 图2 走向变化构造剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模型装置图

  • Fig.2 Set-up of the along-strike surface processes in analogue experiments

  • (a)—构造剥蚀-沉积作用三维立体示意图;(b)—砂箱物理模型走向变化剥蚀-沉积作用分区图,其中Ⅰ区、Ⅱ区、Ⅲ区分别为宽度200 mm; Ⅰ区:无剥蚀-无沉积作用区域、作为标准挤压缩短变形区,以便与其余两区对比; Ⅱ区:构造剥蚀区,为等间距缩短量条件下进行构造剥蚀(delta H楔形体顶部物质剥蚀); Ⅲ区:构造剥蚀-沉积区,为等间距缩短量条件下进行构造剥蚀,剥蚀delta H楔形体顶部物质沉积与楔形体前缘地区;(c)—砂箱物理模型中均值石英砂等厚度铺设,其中用黑色和粉色砂作为标志层,上覆绿色物质代表同构造沉积地层(同构造沉积作用仅发生在Ⅲ区,而剥蚀同时发生在Ⅱ-Ⅲ区)

  • (a) —3-D schematic erosion-deposition processes; (b) —along-strike changed erosion-deposition in analogue experiments, the width of zone-Ⅰ, zone-Ⅱ and zone-Ⅲ are200 mm respectively; zone-Ⅰ: no erosion and no deposition zone, zone-Ⅱ: erosion zone, the material at the wedge top with the delta H is erosion, Zone-Ⅲ: erosion-deposition zone, the eroded material at the wedge top deposits directly in the frontier; (c) —the materials in the analogue experiments are quartz sands with color markers, the green quartz sand represents growth strata (in zone-Ⅲ) (syn-deformation deposition occurs in zone-III, erosion occurs in zones II and III)

  • 随后进行第三次走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积模拟(图3h),Ⅱ~Ⅲ区楔顶高度剥蚀20 mm、减小至60 mm,Ⅲ区楔长增加至400 mm(Ⅰ~Ⅱ区楔长保持不变)。后续持续挤压变形过程中,Ⅰ区楔形体物质前缘断层T7为持续活动变形断层,并沿走向形成斜向断层与后缘T5~T6断层合并,在Ⅱ~Ⅲ区楔形体物质前缘T5~T6断层为持续活动断层,而早期断层T7则停止活动。至挤压缩短变形结束时(缩短量35%时),Ⅰ区楔高和楔长逐渐生长至100 mm、270 mm,Ⅱ区楔高、楔长逐渐生长至75 mm、260 mm,Ⅲ区逐渐生长至75 mm、360 mm(图4)。

  • 图3 走向变化构造剥蚀-沉积作用模拟实验结果模型顶面构造演化图(a~i)

  • Fig.3 Top-view of deformation with along-strike surface processes (a~i)

  • 图中物质表面粉红色圆点为10 mm直径应变标志体,S为缩短量,绿色、红褐色和灰色分别为第一次、第二次和第三次剥蚀后楔形体顶部铺设圆形应变标志体。尤其注意不同阶段断层活动性沿走向的变化特征

  • The pink circles on the surface are10 mm diameter strain markers at first. S is the amount of shortening, green, red-brown and gray circles are strain markers in the first, second and third erosion processes, respectively. It should be noted that there are distinct variations of fault sequences along-strike with different shortening

  • 2.2 断层结构特征

  • 实验结果切片剖面及其三维建模结构上,显示出沿冲断带走向断层结构及其变形组合样式差异性(图5)。① Ⅱ~Ⅲ区楔形体前缘反向冲断及其相关冲起构造(相对于Ⅰ区)较弱,如:切片No.17和No.2等,其主要归因于楔形体后缘剥蚀作用导致Ⅱ~Ⅲ区后缘断层多期活化,而Ⅰ区楔形体构造仍然保持楔形体稳态平衡状态、发生持续的前陆向扩展变形生长过程(邓宾等,2016)。剖面结构上和平面结构上,多条逆冲断层侧向连续渐变归并,形成多条斜向断层与冲起构造合并。如:Ⅰ区前缘T7断层及其冲起构造侧向与T6断层逐渐归并(图5d,图3i),Ⅰ区前缘T6断层及其冲起构造侧向与T5断层逐渐归并(图5d,图3f),它们平面上都表现为在楔形体前缘Ⅱ~Ⅲ区形成斜向断层、与早期的先存前缘断层合并(图3f~h)。② 楔形体前缘前陆向逆冲断层断距和断层倾角具有逐渐变化的特征。受控于前缘同构造沉积地层负载作用,(相对于Ⅰ区)Ⅱ~Ⅲ区前缘主断层具有明显断距减小、断层倾角变小的走向变化特征,如:前缘逆冲断层T7和T6等。③ 由于持续挤压缩短与构造剥蚀作用,导致楔形体后缘深部物质发生明显不同的地层抬升剥蚀作用,如:Ⅲ 剥蚀-沉积区域楔形体后缘深部黑色层系剥蚀至表面。④ 由于持续挤压缩短变形导致楔形体后缘T1~T4逆断层形成类/似花状构造,且局部花状构造受晚期反向冲断层叠加变形,如:T5a反冲断层叠加改造后缘花状构造等。⑤ 楔形体后缘Ⅱ~Ⅲ区形成早期逆断层翻转或“倒转”形成视正断层(即早期逆断层产状翻转形成),剥蚀作用越强、其断层“倒转”作用越明显、“视正断层”越发育。剖面和三维结构上,Ⅰ区无剥蚀-无沉积作用区后缘T1~T4断层为典型的逆冲断层,向Ⅱ~Ⅲ区逐渐演化为产状翻转的视正断层,且Ⅲ区中T4主断层已经发生倒转,且深部结构上“张性正断层”特征愈加明显,如:切片No.2中粉红色标志层相对于黑色标志层T3断层断距。

  • 图4 走向变化构造剥蚀-沉积作用模拟实验楔高/ 楔长与缩短量关系图

  • Fig.4 Plot of geometries of accretionary wedge versus shortening displacement in the analogue experiments with the along-strike surface processes

  • 2.3 褶皱冲断与平行层缩短变形作用

  • 砂箱物理模拟实验过程中,伴随挤压缩短变形通常产生三类主要构造变形与应变作用:① 平行层缩短、② 冲断作用和③ 褶皱作用,我们通过模型实验结束后切片定量计算其构造变形与应变作用特征(图6; Mulugeta et al.,1992; Ravaglia et al.,2004)。早期的砂箱物理模拟实验结果中砂箱物质深部层系(标志层)构造冲断变形作用和平行层缩短作用变形量较大(相对于浅部标志层),且由于走向上不同剥蚀程度导致深部标志层抬升或不同标志层缺失,因此我们以底部粉红色标志层测量为主。

  • 构造冲断变形作用(即水平断距)和褶皱变形作用分别约占总缩短变形量的10%~25%和5%~10%。冲断变形作用总体上大于褶皱变形作用,如:Ⅲ区水平断距量为10%大于褶皱作用量约5%,Ⅱ区水平断距量为15%大于褶皱作用量约8%,而Ⅰ区水平断距量为25%大于褶皱作用量约10%。Ⅱ~Ⅲ区构造剥蚀-沉积区冲断和褶皱变形作用总体上小于Ⅰ区-无剥蚀-无沉积作用区,后者冲断作用和褶皱作用约占总缩短变形量的25%和10%。平行层缩短作用占总缩短变形量的70%~90%,其中Ⅲ区平行层缩短量约85%、Ⅱ区约为75%、Ⅰ区约为70%,总体上与水平断距和褶皱作用相反,即冲断变形作用和褶皱变形作用大、则平行层缩短变形量少,揭示出平行层缩短变形为均值砂箱物质缩短变形过程中主要的应变作用机制。

  • 由于我们逆冲断层断距测量的水平断距(小于实际断距),同时在楔形体后缘发生大规模断层旋转、乃至产状反转出现“视正断层”,如:楔形体后缘带T1~T3断层逐渐由Ⅲ区反转“视正断层”转变成Ⅰ区高角度逆冲断层、前缘带Ⅲ区低角度逆冲断层T6~T7转变为Ⅰ区高角度逆断层,从而导致冲断变形作用(即水平断距量由减小乃至变为负值)被大大低估,因此计算所揭示的皱褶变形和平行层缩短作用可能要大于模型中实际的皱褶变形作用。Liu et al.(1991)、Ravaglia等(2004)基于砂箱物理模拟实验揭示(非剥蚀-沉积条件)标志层平行层缩短量约为40%~60%,大致上与本组实验中Ⅰ区-无剥蚀-无沉积作用区平行层缩短特征相似,然而Ⅲ区平行层缩短量显著高于前者,我们认为这种应变特征主要归因于楔形体后缘的构造剥蚀作用。

  • 图5 走向变化剥蚀-沉积作用下冲断带系统三维断层结构图

  • Fig.5 Three-dimensional visualization of faults and cross-sections in the analogue experiment

  • (a)、(b)—构造物理模拟结果及其典型切片特征(切片位置参考图2b),其中Ⅰ区-无剥蚀-无沉积作用区域、Ⅱ区-构造剥蚀区、Ⅲ区-构造剥蚀-沉积区;(c)、(d)—断层三维模式左、右视图,示典型冲断层及其相关冲起构造沿构造走向变化特征

  • (a) , (b) —The analogue results and the sections (see locations of sections in Fig.2b) , zone-I is no erosion an no deposition zone, zone-II is erosion zone; (c) , (d) —the left and right views of the3-D visualization of faults showing the typical thrust fault and the along-strike variations of the pop up

  • 3 讨论

  • 3.1 青藏高原东缘龙门山冲断带地壳结构与浅表剥蚀作用独特性

  • 基于深部地球物理资料、GPS监测和活动地震调查等,大量构造模式与争议都聚集于龙门山褶皱冲断带高海拔、高坡度、低GPS速率、低新生代构造缩短和高剥蚀速率/剥蚀量之间的矛盾性,它们即体现出青藏高原东缘龙门山地区中新生代多期构造叠加过程的复杂性(Oskin,2012)。深部地球物质资料揭示青藏高原东缘地壳Moho面深度具有由松潘-甘孜地区约56 km向南东逐渐减小到龙门山地区52 km左右、至川西前陆地区48 km左右; 同时由北向南也具有逐渐增大的特征,即有56 km深度向南增加至60 km(图6)。Moho面深度显著变化地区与主干断层变形带具有对应性,如:茂汶-汶川断裂带、岷江断裂带和龙日坝断裂,尤其是茂汶断裂带地区可能存在10 km左右的深度变化(Zhang Zhongjie et al.,2009; Guo Xiaoyu et al.,2013; Lu Renqi et al.,2019)。区域构造与变质温度计等研究所揭示的沿茂汶断裂带具有约150~200℃的最大变质温度跃迁特征与其相一致(图7; Airaghi et al.,2018),揭示晚三叠世-早侏罗世茂汶-汶川断裂带为区域主要的地壳分带边界断裂体系。基于P-波和S-波接收函数等研究表明,岩石圈与软流圈界面(LAB)由松潘-甘孜地区向川西前陆盆地也具有逐渐增大的特征,由70~80 km深度逐渐增大到100~120 km左右(Zhang Zhongjie et al.,2010),深度显著变化区域发生在龙门山冲断带后缘区域(图7)。

  • 图6 走向变化剥蚀-沉积作用下模拟实验构造变形与应变作用对比图

  • Fig.6 Plot of strain partition of deformation in the analogue experiments with along-strike surface processes

  • 龙门山冲断带走向上具有明显的不一致地貌特征,即由NE向SW其地貌坡度具有明显的变陡增大特征(图7),南段地区较陡的地貌特征与大量出露的基底杂岩带(较强抗风化剥蚀能力)具有一致性,如:彭灌杂岩体、宝兴杂岩体等(图1)。需要指出的是,南段高地貌高程和高起伏度特征与地球物理资料所揭示的地壳厚度增大相一致,即松潘甘孜地区—龙门山南段具较大地壳厚度; 同时龙门山冲断带南段,尤其是宝兴—丹巴地区,基底杂岩和变质岩普遍(相对于中北段)具有较低的最大变质温度(约350℃,据Airaghi et al.,2018),揭示出龙门山南段具有较弱的晚中生代-新生代(约80~50 Ma以来的)热动力变质作用过程。

  • 龙门山褶皱冲断带具有沿走向和倾向变化的低温热年代学特征,即AFT(磷灰石裂变径迹)和ZFT(锆石裂变径迹)年龄值。低温热年代学体系中,AFT体系具有较低的封闭温度~110℃和部分退火温度带范围~110~60℃、能够有效揭示地壳浅表<3~4 km抬升剥蚀作用过程。龙门山冲断带与川西前陆盆地具有明显的AFT年代学差异性,即沿冲断带前缘断层安县-灌县断裂分带(图7),龙门山地区AFT年龄普遍小于60 Ma、而川西前陆盆地AFT年龄普遍大于100 Ma(为未退火样品)。龙门山冲断带南段和北段AFT年代学也存在明显差异性,即北段AFT>40~50 Ma、南段AFT<20 Ma,揭示出龙门山中—南段新生代以来快速的抬升剥蚀作用,如:宝兴地区、茂县地区; 同时大量年代学年龄和热史模拟也表明中南段龙门山冲断带后缘地区,如黑水地区和丹巴地区等,也具有相似的晚中生代快速抬升剥蚀作用。而龙门山其余地区新生代普遍难以抬升剥蚀3~4 km深度层系。ZFT体系具有较高的封闭温度~240℃和部分退火温度带范围~240~180℃、能够有效揭示地壳深部约10~8 km抬升剥蚀作用过程。龙门山冲断带中北段ZFT年龄普遍大于200 Ma,仅宝兴—丹巴地区ZFT<20 Ma,此外松潘-甘孜黑水地区ZFT年龄约为60~80 Ma(图7)。因此,龙门山地区新生代地壳深部层系抬升剥蚀作用主要发生在龙门山南段宝兴-丹巴地区。

  • 青藏高原东缘地区总体上从松潘-甘孜地区、由NW向SE至川西前陆地区具有逐渐减小的最大变质温度、减小的地壳Moho面深度和增大的岩石圈厚度(LAB深度)总趋势,揭示出晚三叠世—侏罗纪印支期挤压褶皱冲断变形过程对于龙门山地区构造格架的重要控制性。同时沿龙门山冲断带由NE向SW走向变化的晚新生代快速抬升剥蚀和变质温度条件等,揭示出新生代抬升剥蚀作用对龙门山南段形成演化的重要性。进一步对比走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积作用物理模拟实验结果与龙门山冲断带结构特征(图5,图7),揭示出二者具有明显的相似性:① 冲断带边界主断裂具有似/类花状构造特征; ② 具有明显走向变化的抬升剥蚀与基底层系的出露特征; ③ 冲断带边界主断层具有广泛出露的“视正断层”特征。龙门山后缘茂汶-汶川断裂带以典型的韧性剪切变形带出露为主要特征,其志留系茂县群中发育大量的S-C′劈理具有典型的NW盘“张性滑动”构造变形特征(图8a、b),且其显微构造也能够观察到典型的张性多米诺斑晶结构特征(图8d)。需要指出的是,龙门山冲断带前缘虽然发育大量飞来峰构造,但其伴生“滑动”构造变形样式普遍为地层倒转或高角度层系挤压逆冲变形机制(图8c)。它们与物理模型中冲断带前缘挤压变形特征、后缘抬升剥蚀成因控制的早期逆断层翻转形成“视正断层”特征相一致,同时它们与深部地球物理资料所揭示的龙门山冲断带后缘断层高角度展布-倒转的几何学特征相似。

  • 图7 青藏高原东缘龙门山冲断带系统深部与浅部结构-构造特征综合图

  • Fig.7 Comparison among tectonics by field geology data, geophysical and geomorphological data along the Longmenshan fold-and-thrust belt on the eastern Tibetan Plateau

  • 浅表热年代学年龄据(Arne et al.,1997; Wang Erqi et al.,2012; Tian Yuntao et al.,20132015; Tan Xibin et al.,2017; Ansberque et al.,2018; Tan Xibin et al.,2019); 变质温度数据据(Airaghi et al.,2018); 岩石圈与软流圈界线(LAB)深度据(Zhang Zhongjie et al.,2010); Moho面深度据(Zhang Zhongjie et al.,2009; Hu Jiafu et al.,2011); 地震震源中心及其深度分布据(Lei Jianshe et al.,2009); 龙门山深部地球物理剖面据(Guo Xiaoyu et al.,2013),深度剖面中黄色和绿色五角星分别代表2008汶川地震震源和LAB(岩石圈与软流圈边界)面显著变化带

  • Thermochronologic data are from Arne et al., 1997; Wang Erqi et al., 2012; Tian Yuntao et al., 2013, 2015; Tan Xibin et al., 2017; Ansberque et al., 2018; Tan Xibin et al., 2019; metamorphic temperature data are from Airaghi et al., 2018; depth of lithosphere and asthenosphere boundary (LAB) are from Zhang Zhongjie et al., 2010; depths of Moho surface are from Zhang Zhongjie et al., 2009; Hu Jiafu et al., 2011; earthquake data are from Lei Jianshe et al., 2009; Guo Xiaoyu et al., 2013; the yellow and green pentagon in the depth profile represent the epicenter of the2008 Wenchuant earthquake and the significant change zone of the LAB (the boundary between the lithosphere and asthenosphere) surface

  • 3.2 走向变化冲断剥蚀-沉积作用对前陆盆地结构特征的控制性

  • 基于自然界实例的数值与物理模拟表明(Persson et al.,2004; Fillon et al.,2013; Erdo et al.; 2015; Butler,2020; Liu Yiduo et al.,2020),褶皱冲断带剥蚀沉积物载荷可能对冲断带结构样式与构造演化产生重要控制影响作用,如:岩石圈增厚、断层多期活化、断层有效活动性、河流水系演化等。以饥饿性沉积建造特征(低沉积速率或同构造期沉积地层厚度)为主的褶皱冲断带,其基底卷入厚皮构造变形样式主要发育于轴部造山带,而相邻的前陆盆地变形特征则以薄皮构造变形样式为主; 而以饱和性沉积建造特征(高沉积速率或同构造期沉积地层厚度)为主的褶皱冲断带在基底卷入厚皮构造变形样式可能同时发育于轴部造山带及其比邻的前陆盆地。饱和性沉积建造特征可能更加有利于前陆盆地区的基底卷入冲断变形的发育,从而导致冲断变形前陆向扩展变形更远、而前陆盆地系统空间上范围较大(图7),褶皱冲断变形可能导致前陆盆地抬升剥蚀与沉积建造过程更加复杂化。龙门山冲断带晚白垩世—新生代快速抬升剥蚀,川西南前陆盆地充填大量同构造期磨拉石沉积,冲断带前陆盆地向扩展冲断导致前陆盆地形成系列新生代冲断构造,如:飞仙关逆断层、熊坡逆断层、龙泉山逆冲断层等,因而川西前陆盆地结构范围空间上(伴随SW走向构造剥蚀-沉积作用增强)SW走向逐渐范围增大,前陆盆地逆冲断层向南逆冲断距更大、不同断层空间距离也逐渐增大。

  • 图8 青藏高原东缘龙门山冲断带典型“视正断层/张性”构造变形特征图

  • Fig.8 Extensional deformation along the Longmenshan on the eastern Tibetan Plateau

  • (a)、(b)—志留系茂县群千枚岩发育S-C′劈理,揭示茂汶断裂带上盘NW向“张性滑动”构造变形,广元青川南东和茂县北东;(c)—泥盆系伴生“滑动”构造变形,地层倒转揭示唐王寨向斜西翼挤压冲断构造变形特征,江油雁门坝西;(d)—云母片岩中不对称石英斑晶略具多米诺构造,揭示茂汶主断层具张性正断层构造变形特征,宝兴县五龙西北; S1—层面; cc′—褶劈理; b-axis—透镜体b轴线理

  • (a) , (b) —S-C′ cleavage in the Silurian Maoxian Group, indicating of NW-ward extensional deformation along the Maowen fault, Qingchuan at the Guangyuan and Maoxian areas; (c) —NW-ward sliding in the Devonian indicating of thrusting deformation on the west limb of Tangwangzhai Syncline, Yanmenba at Jiangyou; (d) —asymmetric Domino structure in the the Silurian Maoxian Group indicating of NW-ward extensional deformation along the Mowen fault, Wulong at Baoxing; S1—strata; cc′—fold cleavage; b-axis—b-axis of deformed lenses

  • 走向变化的构造剥蚀-沉积作用导致前陆盆地同构造沉积地层厚度变化,从而改变前陆盆地破裂变形应力条件及其相关断裂产状、构造变形样式,这与物理模拟实验结果中楔形体前缘断层沿走向上的构造变化相似(图5,图9)。同构造生长地层沉积与断层活动位移具有一定相关性,当生长地层沉积速率与断层位移量相当时(或较大时),生长地层截止点或线能够有效指示断面活动特征、且生长地层被动卷入断层相关活动变形过程中(图9)(如:第二次、第三次剥蚀-沉积过程); 同时,生长地层沉积于楔形体前缘导致楔顶角减小和楔形体刚度增加,由于褶皱冲断带服从于临界楔理论及其自相似性生长过程,意味着需要楔形体后缘断层再活化形成更高的楔顶、更大的楔顶角从而使新形成的楔形体恢复到临界楔形体状态。当生长地层沉积速率较小时,意味着楔形体前缘沉积物未能够改变楔形体楔顶角及其刚度,因而楔形体仍然保持前一个阶段周期的自相似性生长规律、发生前陆向扩展变形过程,如:第一次剥蚀-沉积过程。断面上垂直载荷伴随断层倾角增大而逐渐大于断面上剪切力,导致断层自锁,因而前陆盆地系统中低角度断层更加容易受到后缘扩展变形发生再活化变形。与之相似,生长地层沉积作用也进一步增大断层垂直载荷,因而前陆盆地系统中低角度逆冲断层更加容易发生晚期多期构造变形活动,这与物理实验模型中T6断层多期活化、低角度切割构造变形期沉积地层特征(第二期构造变形期沉积地层变形)相一致(图3,图9)。与之相反,构造剥蚀作用将会减小断层面上垂直载荷,从而导致断层的多期活化过程(Cruz et al.,2011; 邓宾等,2018)。

  • 图9 构造剥蚀-沉积作用相关断层特征对比图(黄色箭头示低角度断层晚期逆冲活动变形)

  • Fig.9 Models of erosion-sedimentation processes with multistage activation of faults (yellow arrows show reactivation of the faults with low dip angle)

  • 因此,同构造剥蚀-沉积作用导致前陆盆地系统沉积充填褶皱冲断带剥蚀物质,如:川西南前陆盆地雅安—邛崃地区等,受新生代同构造沉积作用晚白垩世—新生代沉积地层充填于龙门山冲断带前渊,导致前陆盆地区前陆向扩展断层走向上产状明显降低,如龙泉山断层、熊坡断层等都具有明显的走向断层倾角变化特征(Li Yiquan et al.,2013); 早期逆冲断层前缘沉积物质堆积导致其更加容易形成断坪-断坡结构,晚期进一步挤压使早期断层更加容易沿其低角度断坪发生再活化作用,如:名山断层、熊坡断层和洪雅断层等(Wang Maomao et al.,2020; 邓宾等,2021)。龙门山中南段大量低温热年代学特征也反映前陆盆地断层具有明显的多期无序构造剥蚀作用过程(Richardson et al.,2008; Jia Dong et al.,2020),揭示出同构造剥蚀充填作用对于前陆盆地中断层活动变形的重要影响性。需要指出的是,物理模拟实验中为均一石英砂物质(未添加硅胶滑脱层系),未能够模拟前陆盆地多层次滑脱冲断变形过程,因此龙门山前陆盆地系统沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积耦合作用及其变形特征相对于实验结果可能更加复杂。

  • 综上所述,龙门山晚三叠世—侏罗纪印支期褶皱冲断变形作用控制着龙门山褶皱冲断带-川西前陆盆地系统成因过程,新生代进一步逆冲推覆构造变形和沿走向差异性剥蚀-沉积作用联合控制着龙门山盆-山系统NE—SW走向上地貌、沉积建造和盆山结构的变化特征,尤其是走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用可能控制着其后缘韧性剪切带-茂汶断裂带剥蚀出露及其伴生的“视正断层/张性”变形特征。因而晚三叠世以来的逆冲-走滑构造缩短与浅表作用(即剥蚀-沉积作用)对青藏高原东向扩展生长过程与龙门山独特地貌构造特征具有重要的控制作用(Tapponnier et al,2001; Hubbard et al.,2009; Tan Xibin et al.,2019)。

  • 4 结论

  • 本文基于龙门山褶皱冲断带-前陆盆地系统沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模拟实验研究,主要获得如下结果和结论:

  • (1)沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用导致褶皱冲断带大规模抬升剥蚀-沉积充填过程,冲断带楔高、楔长等几何学特征与多期剥蚀-沉积充填过程具有明显的阶段性生长特征。沿走向上,断层多期活化与无序变形,断层与冲起构造合并生长、形成斜向断层(转换断层); 冲断带物质差异性抬升剥蚀,常常形成与构造剥蚀作用相关的 “视正断层”构造,剥蚀作用越强、断层翻转作用越明显、“视正断层”越发育。

  • (2)沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用砂箱物理模拟实验中,构造冲断变形作用和褶皱变形作用分别约占总缩短变形量的10%~25%和5%~10%,且构造剥蚀和沉积作用导致其冲断和褶皱变形作用减弱(相对于无剥蚀-无沉积作用模拟实验),其应变特征主要归因于楔形体后缘的构造剥蚀作用。

  • (3)龙门山褶皱冲断带后山带发育韧性张性剪切和拉张变形样式,冲断带山前带发育倒转的滑动构造等揭示出挤压褶皱冲断带动力学背景下的拉张构造变形特征,可能受控于龙门山褶皱冲断带晚中生代—新生代沿冲断带走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用过程; 沿走向变化的剥蚀-沉积作用可能导致川西南前陆盆地系统中低角度断层多期活化与无序冲断变形。

  • 致谢:感谢审稿专家对论文进行评审并提供宝贵修改意见和建议。

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    • Ansberque C, Godard V, Olivetti V, Bellier O, De Sigoyer J, Bernet Matthias, Stübner K, Tan Xibin, Xu Xiwei, Ehlers T A. 2018. Differential exhumation across the Longriba fault system: implications for the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Tectonics, 37(2): 663~679.

    • Arne D, Worley B, Wilson C, Chen Shafa, Foster D, Luo Zhili, Liu Shugen, Dirks P. 1997. Differential exhumation in response to episodic thrusting along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Tectonophysics, 280(3-4): 239~256.

    • Beaumont C, Jamieson R A, Nguyen M H, Lee B. 2001. Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature, 414 (6865): 738~742.

    • Burchfiel B C, Royden L H, van der Hilst R D, Hager B H, Chen Zhiliang, King R W, Li Chongyin, Lü J, Yao Hongbo, Kirby E. 2008. A geological and geophysical context for the Wenchuan earthquake of 12 May 2008, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. GSA Today, 18(7): 4~11.

    • Butler R W H. 2020. Syn-kinematic strata influence the structural evolution of emergent fold-thrust belts. Geological Society Special Publication, 490: 57~78.

    • Cai Xuelin, Cao Jiamin, Liu Yuanchao, Wei Xiangui. 1999. Geodynamic models of multidirectional collision-wedging uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Earth Science Frontiers, 6(3): 181~189 (in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Clark M K, Royden L H. 2000. Topographic ooze: building the eastern margin of Tibet by lower crustal flow. Geology, 28: 703~706.

    • Cruz L, Malinski J, Hernandez M, Take A, Hilley. 2011. Erosional control of the kinematics of Aconcagua fold-and-thrust belt from numerical simulations and physical experiments. Geology, 39(5): 439~442.

    • Cui Bingquan, Long Xueming, Li Yuanlin. 1991. The subsidence of western Sichuan depression and the rise of Longmenshan Mountains. Journal of Chengdu College of Geology, 18(1): 39~45(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Deng Bin, Liu Shugen, Jansa L, Cao Junxing, Cheng Yang, Li Zhiwu, Liu Shun. 2012. Sedimentary record of Late Triassic transpressional tectonics of the Longmenshan Thrust Belt, SW China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 48: 43~55.

    • Deng Bin, Zhao Gaoping, Wan Yuanbo, Huang Rui, Wang Xingjian, Liu Shugen. 2016. A review of tectonic sandbox modeling of fold-and-thrust belt. Geotectonica et Metallogenia, 40(3): 446~464(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Deng Bin, Jiang Lei, Zhao Gaoping, Huang Rui, Wang Yuanbo, Liu Shugen. 2018. Insights into the velocity-dependent geometry and internal strain in accretionary wedges from analogue models. Geological Magazine, 155(5): 1089~1104.

    • Deng Bin, Koyi H, Fan Caiwei, Lai Dong, He Yu, Yang Gang, Luo Qiang, Wang Xinjian, Liu Shugen. 2020. Modelling asymmetric deformation along a curved strike-slip basement-fault system. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 110: 165~182.

    • Erdös Z, Huismans R S, van der Beek P. 2015. First-order control of syntectonic sedimentation on crustal-scale structure of mountain belts. Journal of Geophysics Research: Solid Earth, 120(7): 5362~5377.

    • Fan Zenghui, Liu Shugen, Fan Cunhui, Hu Linhui, Li Wenjia, Mi Hong, Han Chong, Han Xiaojun. 2018. Analysis of typical seismic profile and balanced cross-section recovery and tectonic evolution in the Longmenshan fold-thrust belt. Geological Review, 64(2): 347~360(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Fillon C, Huismans R S, van der Beek P. 2013. Syntectonic sedimentation effects on the growth of fold-and-thrust belts. Geology, 41(1): 83~86.

    • Gou Zonghai. 2001. Characteristics of Jurassic-Tertiary conglomerates and depositional environment in the Dayi-Wenchuan area, Sichuan. Regional Geology of China, 20(1): 25~32(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Guo Xiaoyu, Gao Rui, Keller G R, Xu Xiao, Wang Haiyan, Li Wenhui. 2013. Imaging the crustal structure beneath the eastern Tibetan Plateau and implications for the uplift of the Longmen Shan range. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 379: 72~80.

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    • Jia Dong, Li Yiquan, Yan Bing, Li Zhigang, Wang Maomao, Chen Zhuxin, Zhang Yong. 2020. The Cenozoic thrusting sequence of the Longmen Shan fold-and-thrust belt, eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau: insights from low-temperature thermochronology. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 198, 104381.

    • Lei Jianshe, Zhao Dapeng. 2009. Structural heterogeneity of the Longmenshan fault zone and the mechanism of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M s 8. 0). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 10(10): 1~17.

    • Li Yiquan, Jia Dong, Plesch A, Hubbard J, Shaw J H, Wang Maomao. 2013. 3-D geomechanical restoration and paleomagnetic analysis of fault-related folds: an example from the Yanjinggou anticline, southern Sichuan basin. Journal of Structural Geology, 54: 199~241.

    • Li Yong, Allen P A, Densmore A L, Xu Qiang. 2003. Evolution of the Longmen Shan foreland basin (Western Sichuan, China) during the Late Triassic Indosinian orogeny. Basin Research, 15(1): 117~138.

    • Li Yuanlin, Ji Xiangtian. 1993. Petrological character of Daxi conglomerate in Lushan-Tianquan and its provenance. Mineralogy and Petrology, 13(3): 68~73(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Li Zhiwu, Liu Shugen, Chen Hongde, Deng Bin, Hou Mingcai, Wu Wenhui, Cao Junxing. 2012. Spatial variation in Meso-Cenozoic exhumation history of the Longmen Shan thrust belt (eastern Tibetan Plateau) and the adjacent western Sichuan basin: constraints from fission track thermochronology. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 47: 185~203.

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    • Liu Shugen, Deng Bin, Li Zhiwu, Jansa L, Liu Shun, Wang Guozhi, Sun Wei. 2013. Geological evolution of the Longmenshan intracontinental composite orogen and the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Earth Science, 24(6): 874~890.

    • Liu Shumin, Dixon J M. 1991. Centrifuge modelling of thrust faulting: structural variation along strike in fold-thrust belts. Tectonophysics, 188(1): 39~62.

    • Liu Yiduo, Tan Xibin, Ye Yijia, Zhou Chao, Lu Renqi, Murphy M A, Xu Xiwei, Suppe J. 2020. Role of erosion in creating thrust recesses in a critical-taper wedge: an example from eastern Tibet. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 540: 116270.

    • Lohrmann J, Kukowski N, Adam J, Oncken O. 2003. The impact of analogue material properties on the geometry, kinematics, and dynamics of convergent sand wedges. Journal of Structural Geology, 25 (10): 1691~1711.

    • Lu Renqi, Liu Yiduo, Xu Xiwei, Tan Xibin, He Dengfa, Yu Guihua, Cai Minggang, Wu Xiyan. 2019. Three-dimensional model of the lithospheric structure under the eastern Tibetan Plateau: implications for the active tectonics and seismic hazards. Tectonics, 38(4): 1292~1307.

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    • Oskin M E. 2012. Reanimating eastern Tibet. Nature Geoscience, 5: 597~598.

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    • Ravaglia A, Turrini C, Seno S. 2004. Mechanical stratigraphy as a factor controlling the development of a sandbox transfer zone: a three-dimensional analysis. Journal of Structural Geology, 26(12): 2269~2283.

    • Richardson N J, Densmore A L, Seward D, Fowler A, Wipf M, Ellis M A, Li Yong, Zhang Y. 2008. Extraordinary denudation in the Sichuan basin: insights from low-temperature thermochronology adjacent to the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113(B4): 43~62.

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    • Tan Xibin, Xu Xiwei, Lee Y h, Lu Renqi, Liu Yiduo, Xu Chong, Li Kang, Yu Guihua, Kang Wenjun. 2017. Late Cenozoic thrusting of major faults along the central segment of Longmen Shan, eastern Tibet: evidence from low-temperature thermochronology. Tectonophysics, 712-713: 145~155.

    • Tan Xibin, Liu Yiduo, Lee Y H, Lu Renqi, Xu Xiwei, Suppe J, Shi Feng, Xu Chong. 2019. Parallelism between the maximum exhumation belt and the Moho ramp along the eastern Tibetan Plateau margin: coincidence or consequence? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 507: 73~84.

    • Tapponnier P, Xu Z Q, Roger F, Meyer B, Arnaud N, Wittliger G, Yang Jingsui. 2001. Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau. Science, 294(5547): 1671~1677.

    • Tian Yuntao, Kohn B P, Gleadow A J W, Hu Shengbiao. 2013. A thermochronological perspective on the morphotectonic evolution of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 119(1): 676~698.

    • Tian Yuntao, Kohn B P, Hu Shengbiao, Gleadow A J W. 2015. Synchronous fiuvial response to surface uplift in the eastern Tibetan Plateau: implications for crustal dynamics. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(1): 29~35.

    • Wang Erqi, Su Zhe, Xu Guang. 2009. A case study on lateral extrusion occurred along some orogenic belts in China. Chinese Journal of Geology, 44(4): 1266~1288(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Wang Erqi, Kirby E, Furlong K P, Soest M V, Xu Ganqing, Shi Xuhua, Kamp P J J, Hodges K V. 2012. Two-phase growth of high topography in eastern Tibet during the Cenozoic. Nature Geoscience, 5(9): 640~645.

    • Wang Maomao, Feng Wang, Jiang Danqi, Yan Bing, Chen Zhuxin, Song Gonghua. 2020. Interactions between thin- and thick-skinned tectonics at the western Sichuan basin, China. Tectonophysics, 796: 228628.

    • Wang Xu, Chen Ling, Ai Yinshuang, Xu Tao, Jiang Mingming, Ling Yuan, Gao Yifan. 2018. Crustal structure and deformation beneath eastern and northeastern Tibet revealed by P-wave receiver functions. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 497: 69~79.

    • Willett S D, Brandon M T. 2002. On steady states in mountain belts. Geology, 30(2): 175~178.

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  • 参考文献

    • Airaghi L, Sigoyer J, Guillot S, Robert A, Warren C J, Deldicque D. 2018. The Mesozoic along-strike tectonometamorphic segmentation of Longmen Shan (Eastern Tibetan Plateau). Tectonics, 37(12): 4655~4678.

    • Ansberque C, Godard V, Olivetti V, Bellier O, De Sigoyer J, Bernet Matthias, Stübner K, Tan Xibin, Xu Xiwei, Ehlers T A. 2018. Differential exhumation across the Longriba fault system: implications for the eastern Tibetan Plateau. Tectonics, 37(2): 663~679.

    • Arne D, Worley B, Wilson C, Chen Shafa, Foster D, Luo Zhili, Liu Shugen, Dirks P. 1997. Differential exhumation in response to episodic thrusting along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Tectonophysics, 280(3-4): 239~256.

    • Beaumont C, Jamieson R A, Nguyen M H, Lee B. 2001. Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature, 414 (6865): 738~742.

    • Burchfiel B C, Royden L H, van der Hilst R D, Hager B H, Chen Zhiliang, King R W, Li Chongyin, Lü J, Yao Hongbo, Kirby E. 2008. A geological and geophysical context for the Wenchuan earthquake of 12 May 2008, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. GSA Today, 18(7): 4~11.

    • Butler R W H. 2020. Syn-kinematic strata influence the structural evolution of emergent fold-thrust belts. Geological Society Special Publication, 490: 57~78.

    • Cai Xuelin, Cao Jiamin, Liu Yuanchao, Wei Xiangui. 1999. Geodynamic models of multidirectional collision-wedging uplift of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. Earth Science Frontiers, 6(3): 181~189 (in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Clark M K, Royden L H. 2000. Topographic ooze: building the eastern margin of Tibet by lower crustal flow. Geology, 28: 703~706.

    • Cruz L, Malinski J, Hernandez M, Take A, Hilley. 2011. Erosional control of the kinematics of Aconcagua fold-and-thrust belt from numerical simulations and physical experiments. Geology, 39(5): 439~442.

    • Cui Bingquan, Long Xueming, Li Yuanlin. 1991. The subsidence of western Sichuan depression and the rise of Longmenshan Mountains. Journal of Chengdu College of Geology, 18(1): 39~45(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Deng Bin, Liu Shugen, Jansa L, Cao Junxing, Cheng Yang, Li Zhiwu, Liu Shun. 2012. Sedimentary record of Late Triassic transpressional tectonics of the Longmenshan Thrust Belt, SW China. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 48: 43~55.

    • Deng Bin, Zhao Gaoping, Wan Yuanbo, Huang Rui, Wang Xingjian, Liu Shugen. 2016. A review of tectonic sandbox modeling of fold-and-thrust belt. Geotectonica et Metallogenia, 40(3): 446~464(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Deng Bin, Jiang Lei, Zhao Gaoping, Huang Rui, Wang Yuanbo, Liu Shugen. 2018. Insights into the velocity-dependent geometry and internal strain in accretionary wedges from analogue models. Geological Magazine, 155(5): 1089~1104.

    • Deng Bin, Koyi H, Fan Caiwei, Lai Dong, He Yu, Yang Gang, Luo Qiang, Wang Xinjian, Liu Shugen. 2020. Modelling asymmetric deformation along a curved strike-slip basement-fault system. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 110: 165~182.

    • Erdös Z, Huismans R S, van der Beek P. 2015. First-order control of syntectonic sedimentation on crustal-scale structure of mountain belts. Journal of Geophysics Research: Solid Earth, 120(7): 5362~5377.

    • Fan Zenghui, Liu Shugen, Fan Cunhui, Hu Linhui, Li Wenjia, Mi Hong, Han Chong, Han Xiaojun. 2018. Analysis of typical seismic profile and balanced cross-section recovery and tectonic evolution in the Longmenshan fold-thrust belt. Geological Review, 64(2): 347~360(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Fillon C, Huismans R S, van der Beek P. 2013. Syntectonic sedimentation effects on the growth of fold-and-thrust belts. Geology, 41(1): 83~86.

    • Gou Zonghai. 2001. Characteristics of Jurassic-Tertiary conglomerates and depositional environment in the Dayi-Wenchuan area, Sichuan. Regional Geology of China, 20(1): 25~32(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Guo Xiaoyu, Gao Rui, Keller G R, Xu Xiao, Wang Haiyan, Li Wenhui. 2013. Imaging the crustal structure beneath the eastern Tibetan Plateau and implications for the uplift of the Longmen Shan range. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 379: 72~80.

    • Hu Jiafu, Xu Xingqian, Yang Haiyan, Wen Limin, Li Guangquan. 2011. S receiver function analysis of the crustal and lithospheric structures beneath eastern Tibet. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 306(1): 77~85.

    • Hubbard J, Shaw J H. 2009. Uplift of the Longmen Shan and Tibetan plateau, and the 2008 Wenchuan (M =7. 9) earthquake. Nature, 458(7235): 194~197.

    • Jia Dong, Li Yiquan, Yan Bing, Li Zhigang, Wang Maomao, Chen Zhuxin, Zhang Yong. 2020. The Cenozoic thrusting sequence of the Longmen Shan fold-and-thrust belt, eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau: insights from low-temperature thermochronology. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 198, 104381.

    • Lei Jianshe, Zhao Dapeng. 2009. Structural heterogeneity of the Longmenshan fault zone and the mechanism of the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake (M s 8. 0). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 10(10): 1~17.

    • Li Yiquan, Jia Dong, Plesch A, Hubbard J, Shaw J H, Wang Maomao. 2013. 3-D geomechanical restoration and paleomagnetic analysis of fault-related folds: an example from the Yanjinggou anticline, southern Sichuan basin. Journal of Structural Geology, 54: 199~241.

    • Li Yong, Allen P A, Densmore A L, Xu Qiang. 2003. Evolution of the Longmen Shan foreland basin (Western Sichuan, China) during the Late Triassic Indosinian orogeny. Basin Research, 15(1): 117~138.

    • Li Yuanlin, Ji Xiangtian. 1993. Petrological character of Daxi conglomerate in Lushan-Tianquan and its provenance. Mineralogy and Petrology, 13(3): 68~73(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Li Zhiwu, Liu Shugen, Chen Hongde, Deng Bin, Hou Mingcai, Wu Wenhui, Cao Junxing. 2012. Spatial variation in Meso-Cenozoic exhumation history of the Longmen Shan thrust belt (eastern Tibetan Plateau) and the adjacent western Sichuan basin: constraints from fission track thermochronology. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 47: 185~203.

    • Lin Maobing, Gou Zonghai, Wang Guozhi, Deng Jianghong, Li Yong, Ma Yongwang, Wang Daoyong, Shi Shaoqing, Shi He, Li Yongzhao, Hu Xinwei. 1996. Geology of the Middle Part of Longmenshan. Chengdu: Chengdu University of Science and Technology Press.

    • Liu Hefu, Liang Huishe, Cai Liguo, Shen Fei. 1994. Structural styles of the Longmenshan thrust belt and evolution of the foreland basin in western Sichuan Province, China. Acta Geologica Sinica, 68(2): 101~118(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Liu Shugen, Deng Bin, Li Zhiwu, Jansa L, Liu Shun, Wang Guozhi, Sun Wei. 2013. Geological evolution of the Longmenshan intracontinental composite orogen and the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Earth Science, 24(6): 874~890.

    • Liu Shumin, Dixon J M. 1991. Centrifuge modelling of thrust faulting: structural variation along strike in fold-thrust belts. Tectonophysics, 188(1): 39~62.

    • Liu Yiduo, Tan Xibin, Ye Yijia, Zhou Chao, Lu Renqi, Murphy M A, Xu Xiwei, Suppe J. 2020. Role of erosion in creating thrust recesses in a critical-taper wedge: an example from eastern Tibet. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 540: 116270.

    • Lohrmann J, Kukowski N, Adam J, Oncken O. 2003. The impact of analogue material properties on the geometry, kinematics, and dynamics of convergent sand wedges. Journal of Structural Geology, 25 (10): 1691~1711.

    • Lu Renqi, Liu Yiduo, Xu Xiwei, Tan Xibin, He Dengfa, Yu Guihua, Cai Minggang, Wu Xiyan. 2019. Three-dimensional model of the lithospheric structure under the eastern Tibetan Plateau: implications for the active tectonics and seismic hazards. Tectonics, 38(4): 1292~1307.

    • Mulugeta G, Koyi H. 1992. Episodic accretion and strain partitioning in a model sand wedge. Tectonophysics, 202 (2-4): 319~333.

    • Oskin M E. 2012. Reanimating eastern Tibet. Nature Geoscience, 5: 597~598.

    • Persson K S, Garcia-Castellanos D, Sokoutis D. 2004. River transport effects on compressional belts: first results from an integrated analogue-numerical model. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109(B1): 167~234.

    • Ratschbacher L, Frisch W, Neubauer F, Schmid S M, Neugebauer J. 1989. Extension in compressional orogenic belt: the eastern Alps. Geology, 17(5): 404~407.

    • Ravaglia A, Turrini C, Seno S. 2004. Mechanical stratigraphy as a factor controlling the development of a sandbox transfer zone: a three-dimensional analysis. Journal of Structural Geology, 26(12): 2269~2283.

    • Richardson N J, Densmore A L, Seward D, Fowler A, Wipf M, Ellis M A, Li Yong, Zhang Y. 2008. Extraordinary denudation in the Sichuan basin: insights from low-temperature thermochronology adjacent to the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research, 113(B4): 43~62.

    • RoydenL H, Burchfiel B C, King R W, Wang E, Chen Zhiliang, Shen Feng, Liu Yuping. 1997. Surface deformation and lower crustal flow in eastern Tibet. Science, 276(5313): 788~790.

    • Tan Xibin, Xu Xiwei, Lee Y h, Lu Renqi, Liu Yiduo, Xu Chong, Li Kang, Yu Guihua, Kang Wenjun. 2017. Late Cenozoic thrusting of major faults along the central segment of Longmen Shan, eastern Tibet: evidence from low-temperature thermochronology. Tectonophysics, 712-713: 145~155.

    • Tan Xibin, Liu Yiduo, Lee Y H, Lu Renqi, Xu Xiwei, Suppe J, Shi Feng, Xu Chong. 2019. Parallelism between the maximum exhumation belt and the Moho ramp along the eastern Tibetan Plateau margin: coincidence or consequence? Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 507: 73~84.

    • Tapponnier P, Xu Z Q, Roger F, Meyer B, Arnaud N, Wittliger G, Yang Jingsui. 2001. Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau. Science, 294(5547): 1671~1677.

    • Tian Yuntao, Kohn B P, Gleadow A J W, Hu Shengbiao. 2013. A thermochronological perspective on the morphotectonic evolution of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 119(1): 676~698.

    • Tian Yuntao, Kohn B P, Hu Shengbiao, Gleadow A J W. 2015. Synchronous fiuvial response to surface uplift in the eastern Tibetan Plateau: implications for crustal dynamics. Geophysical Research Letters, 42(1): 29~35.

    • Wang Erqi, Su Zhe, Xu Guang. 2009. A case study on lateral extrusion occurred along some orogenic belts in China. Chinese Journal of Geology, 44(4): 1266~1288(in Chinese with English abstract).

    • Wang Erqi, Kirby E, Furlong K P, Soest M V, Xu Ganqing, Shi Xuhua, Kamp P J J, Hodges K V. 2012. Two-phase growth of high topography in eastern Tibet during the Cenozoic. Nature Geoscience, 5(9): 640~645.

    • Wang Maomao, Feng Wang, Jiang Danqi, Yan Bing, Chen Zhuxin, Song Gonghua. 2020. Interactions between thin- and thick-skinned tectonics at the western Sichuan basin, China. Tectonophysics, 796: 228628.

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