From the discovery of the Earth’s core in 1906 to 1960’s, studies of geophysics, geology and mineral physics revealed a spherical structure of the Earth composed of layers with different physical and chemical properties. The Preliminary Reference Earth Model has been established according to global changes of seismic velocities and density with depth. The plate tectonics theory proposed in 1967 brought a revolution in Earth Sciences. Plate tectonics proposed that the outer shell of the Earth is a rigid lithosphere, which moves above a ductile asthenosphere. The oceanic crust is continuously formed at midocean ridges and consequently similar amount of the old oceanic crust subducted at trenches. Because of the rigidity of plates, deformation is mainly concentrated in plate boundaries. Plate tectonics successfully interprets the birth and subduction of the oceanic lithosphere, distribution of volcanos and earthquakes, and global tectonic regime. However, it still cannot answer some key questions such as when and how plate tectonics initiated, how diffusive deformation of the continental lithosphere formed, deep subduction of the continental lithosphere etc. Hence continental dynamics became an important complementary to plate tectonics. Recent studies indicate that at convergent plate margins, the oceanic lithosphere may be subducted to the mantle transition zone, the lower mantle and even the core—mantle boundary; whereas the continental lithosphere may be subducted to depths of 150~300 km and then the lowdensity continental materials exhume rapidly and form coesite and diamondbearing ultrahighpressure metamorphic terranes. Mantle plumes are related to the recycling of subducted oceanic slabs. They not only produces large igneous provinces and oceanic island basalts, but also carry subducted materials from the mantle transition zone to the shallow depths, as evidenced by diamond and deep mantle minerals in ophiolites. Acrosssphere tectonics, such as subduction zones and mantle plumes, not only provided important pathways for the material cycles among different layers, but also triggered the Earth’s deep water and carbon cycles that are essential for a habitable planet. Therefore, knowledge about subduction zones and mantle plumes is critical for our understanding of composition and dynamic evolution of the Earth.